Part FiveThe Age of Mass
Politics
In 1850, Great Britain, France, and Russia were the
three major European powers. However, the unification of Italy
and Germany during the 1860s and early 1870s shifted the bal
ance of power in Central Europe and dramatically changed inter
national dynamics. Moreover, amid rising national consciousness,
ethnic minorities within the Habsburg Empire, in particular,
demanded more rights, setting the stage for further conflict in
Europe.
During the nineteenth century’s last three decades, much of
Europe entered a period of remarkable economic, social, politi
cal, and cultural change. During the Second Industrial Revolu
tion, scientific and technological advances ushered in a period of
rapid economic growth. Steel and electricity transformed manu
facturing. Cities grew rapidly, their wide boulevards lined with
department stores, cafes, and newspaper kiosks. The emergence
of spectator sports and flashy cabarets symbolized the fin-de
siecle period. However, some of the rebellious writers and artists
of the avant-garde worried that Western civilization was moving
too rapidly and seemed out of control.
On the continent, political parties developed, which helped
bring about the age of mass politics. Despite a general improve
ment in the quality of life, the difficult conditions of the laboring
poor encouraged the creation of Socialist parties. Socialists were
elected to many European parliaments. Trade unions put forth
demands and engaged in strikes. In Britain, the Labour Party
started up early in the twentieth century, supported by workers
demanding social reform. In Russia, liberal critics of the tsarist
autocracy became bolder. The humiliating defeat of Russia by