The Second Industrial Revolution 745United States and Canada flooded markets. In industrialized countries, tar
iffs became the focus of impassioned political debate, even in Britain,
where economic liberalism remained the prevailing credo. Governments
responded to the depression by imposing protective tariffs, in the interest
of native industries and agriculture, in Austria (1874), Russia (1875),
France (1892), Italy (1887), and Germany (1902).
New Technology and Scientific Discoveries
In 1856, the English inventor Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) developed a
new method for forging steel from pig iron by forcing air through the
molten metal to reduce its carbon content. The result was steel that was
less expensive to produce than it had been by the old method and that
could be turned out in greater quantities (see Table 19.1). Other related
discoveries over the next twenty years permitted the production of steel of
a more consistent quality, lowering its price by two-thirds.
Steel's strength, durability, and flexibility gave it a marked advantage
over iron. Steel improved the size, quality, standardization, and precision
of machinery. Just three years after Bessemer's discovery, the first British
ship constructed of steel slid into the sea. Larger, sturdier, and faster than
their predecessors, steel ships transformed naval warfare.
Medical advances enhanced the already soaring prestige of science and
the professional stature of its practitioners. In much of Europe, a trip to
the doctor was no longer seen as the first stop on the way to the under
taker. Anesthesia, which had already been discovered in the United States
in the 1840s, made surgery less painful. The French scientist Louis Pas
teur (1822—1895) discovered that just as various types of fermentation
were caused by different kinds of germs, so were many diseases. His devel
opment of germ theory in the 1860s brought a virtual revolution in health
Table 19.1. Annual Output of Steel (in millions of metric tons)