A History of Modern Europe - From the Renaissance to the Present

The European Powers in Asia 837

forces occupied Shanghai.

By the Treaty of Nanking that

followed in 1842, the first of

the “unequal treaties/' China

was forced to establish a

number of “treaty ports” open

to British trade, including

Canton and Shanghai, and it

was required to grant Britain

formal authority “in perpetu­

ity” over Hong Kong (author­

ity that lasted until 1997).

British residents and Euro­

pean visitors received the
rights of extraterritoriality,
which meant that they were
not subject to Chinese law.
Britain and France together. ..

. , ^ --,11 Chinese men smoking opium,
occupied Canton. Following
hostilities in 1857 (see

Chapter 18), a combined British and French army forced China to open six
more ports to British and French trade, including on the Yangtze River. The
British trade route now ran from British ports to Bombay, Columbo in Cey­
lon (now Sri Lanka), Rangoon, and Singapore, dramatically assisted by the
Suez Canal beginning in 1869.
In 1857, a revolt shook British rule in India, revealing some of the ten­
sions between the colonialists and the colonized. Long-term causes of the
mutiny of the Sepoys—Indian troops in the British army—included anger at
the British policy of taking direct control over Indian states whose princes
died without heirs. The immediate cause was the continued use of animal

fat to grease rifle cartridges, a religious affront to both Hindu and Muslim
soldiers. Other causes included low pay and resentment of British officers.
Confronted with British intransigence, the Sepoys rebelled over a wide area,
beginning near Delhi. In one place insurgents killed 200 British women and
children. The rebels promised a return to Mughal power, as the emperor had
been a mere figurehead since 1803. They found some support among local
elites, particularly those who saw increased British authority to be a threat to
Islam in areas of that religion. An extensive military campaign followed,
involving almost 200,000 British and Indian soldiers. British authorities
hanged rebels and burned a number of villages.
Following the mutiny, administration of India passed in 1858 from the
East India Company to the British crown. Queen Victoria became “Empress
of India” and British rule became more direct. Indian princes were guaran­
teed their lands if they signed agreements accepting British rule. The
governor-general of India added the honorific title of “viceroy,” as the