The European Powers and the Eastern Question ••• 165tures and a major supplier of foodstuffs and raw materials to Britain. The
British also came to share Austria's suspicions of Russia's Balkan aims.
The largest European conflict between the time of Napoleon's defeat and
the outbreak of World War I was the Crimean War. Although many people
think that the war was sparked by a fight between Catholic and Orthodox
priests in Jerusalem, the real cause was the fear of most European countries
that Russia's growing strength in the Balkans in 1853 would threaten the
balance of power in Europe. By leading the anti-Russian coalition, Britain
proved that it would go to great trouble and expense to defend Turkey
against Russian expansionism and thus to preserve the balance of power.
On the same logic, Britain sent part of its fleet into the Dardanelles in 1878
as a warning, after Russia had occupied most of the Balkan lands. In Chap¬
ter 11 we explain how Britain's commitment extended to pressing western¬
izing reforms on the Ottoman rulers at these critical times. In a further
attempt to secure its routes to India, Britain also took Aden in 1839, Cyprus
in 1878, and Egypt in 1882 and made treaties with Arab rulers along the
Persian Gulf from Oman to Kuwait. Several times Britain sent troops to Af¬
ghanistan or Persia to deter the advancing Russians, whose hope of reach¬
ing the Gulf nearly equaled their drive to the Straits. Britain feared that the
czars' land hunger might extend to the Himalayas, India, and even China.
These nineteenth-century events foreshadowed Britain's attempt to domi¬
nate the Middle East after World War I.
France: Protector and Civilizer
The best friend of the Ottoman Turks was usually France. Its strategic lo¬
cation, with ports on both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, made
France a contender for mastery in Europe. Until the nineteenth century its
greatest Mediterranean rival was the Habsburg Empire, driving France
into alliance with the Ottomans. France claimed to have the first Capitula¬
tions, and French merchants and investors usually led the Europeans do¬
ing business in the Ottoman Empire. When it needed military or naval
experts, engineers, or teachers, the Ottoman government usually sought
assistance from France. Young Ottomans were more apt to choose France
than any other foreign country for higher education or advanced voca¬
tional training.
Religion, too, strengthened the French connection. When Russia tried to
protect Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule, France advanced similar
claims on behalf of Catholics. Because they were less numerous, the Turks
minded them less. One fateful result was the special bond between France
and Syria. And one key to this tie was a Christian sect, the Maronites, who