A Concise History of the Middle East

Conclusion • 167

troops, too, but failed to act at the critical moment) to quell a nationalist
uprising in 1882. France's economic and cultural ties with Egypt remained
strong, but by the end of the nineteenth century, in spite of French oppo¬
sition, Britain dominated the Nile Valley. France did, however, take control
of most of the rest of North Africa. After World War I it would seek fur¬
ther compensation in Syria and Lebanon.

CONCLUSION

This brings to a close our rapid survey of the Middle Eastern interests and
policies of the major European powers. We went beyond the eighteenth
century, hoping to give you a context for events occurring later on. You may
ask why we focused on Russia, Austria, England, and France, to the exclu¬
sion of all other countries. Admittedly, we have oversimplified the scenario
somewhat. The complete cast of characters in the Eastern Question would
include Swiss archaeologists, Belgian bankers, German military advisers,
American Protestant and Italian Catholic missionaries, Greek grocers, and
Armenian photographers. By 1900 the German, Italian, and US govern¬
ments had also acquired bit parts in the political drama. Persia was becom¬
ing more important as well, especially as an object of Anglo-Russian
commercial and military rivalry.
This chapter also treated the Middle East not as an area taking indepen¬
dent action but as one acted upon. This, too, is a distortion. Even if it did
lose lands in the Balkans and North Africa, the Ottoman Empire remained
independent throughout this time. Even if Western ambassadors and advis¬
ers might have overdirected sultans and viziers, the scope of their actions
was limited by Muslim conservatism and their need to prevent another
country's intervention. Likewise, Persia staved off the Russians and the
British until both agreed to split the country into zones of influence in

1907. Most Middle Eastern peoples went on living their lives as if Europe
      were on another planet. The changes affecting them were the westernizing
      reform policies of their own rulers. It is to these reforms that we now turn.