cymbals, and the use of two or three musical instruments so that it became half-
narration, half-singing.
Chinese children also had the opportunity of watching open-air theatres during
festivals and fairs. These plays or operas are characterised by visually stunning
costumes and actors’ make-up and impressive displays of acrobatics, and Chinese
martial arts. This was one reason why classical works of literature could be appreciated
by everyone, literate or non-literate, including children. When theatres or operas were
not available, children often had the choice of watching puppet shows or shadow plays,
which were frequently held during festival times.
In formal education children were taught the Confucian classics as these were the basic
grounding to a civil service career. Children were taught these through rote-learning and
memorising without understanding them. Until the early twentieth century, Chinese
classical literature was the traditional material for primers in schools. Children who went
to school could recite highly literary works such as poems, songs, historical chronicles,
works of philosophy, moral sayings, and ceremonial and religious rituals, from the
Confucian classics. The ease with which children could memorise and chant such
serious literature was facilitated by the literary techniques of the classical works—the
conciseness of the Chinese language in four-, five-, or seven-character-line couplets, and
the rhythm and tonal quality. The Analects, is an example of a classical piece of
literature considered very heavy reading material for adults, let alone children—yet
children in ancient China had only these texts as literature.
However, many of the earliest versions of myths and legends were incorporated into
these philosophical writings and historical chronicles. Fables, folklore, humorous
anecdotes, including folk-songs, nursery rhymes, cumulative story rhymes and proverbs
were culled from as far back as the Classical period, and taught to children in the oral
tradition.
Although there are records of literature from the earliest times of Chinese civilisation
(1765 BC) it can be said that literary works—the Classics—were written during the
times of the sages. Confucius (551–479 BC) and his teachings of morals and familial
values had a profound influence on the life of the Chinese. Confucianism moulded the
Chinese character and pervaded every aspect of Chinese society, the family and the arts.
In a broad sense, much of Chinese literature is Confucian literature. Influenced by
Confucian ethics, the Chinese were especially strong in their sense of right and wrong,
which naturally found expression in literature, both written and oral. To the majority of
Chinese writers in post- and pre-modern China, literature has been a vehicle for the
communication of the aim of Confucian doctrine: to teach and influence people to be
good. Thus, there is always a moral lesson in a work of Chinese literature.
Despite the pervasiveness of didacticism, Chinese literature is enjoyed tremendously
by children and adults alike. Its appeal lies in drawing accurate accounts of historical
events and figures, mostly of the romantic, imaginative kind. For instance, the notorious
Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and its first emperor, Shihuangdi, famous for building the
Great Wall of China, were the sources of many a romantic tales about heroism and
honour. Similarly, the period of the warring factions (480–221 BC.) became the source
for the epic tale, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, with its countless tales of glowing
military exploits, cunning strategies and magnificent bravery. Men of the Marshes or The
820 CHINA