Richardson’s Pamela in the early 18th century, and to the happy endings of the
novels of Jane Austen in the 19th century. Fantasy flourished again in the fiction of
the late 20th century.Medieval institutions
Having seen some of the effects of the submersion of English by French, and before
approaching the flowering of English poetry in the reign of Richard II (1377–99),
we should look at institutions and mental habits which shaped this new English
literature.
Foremost of these is the Church. Modern literature is largely concerned with
secular life and written by lay people. But for a thousand years, the thought, culture
and art of Europe were promoted by the Church. The clergy were the source of
education, arts and literature – including anti-clerical satire. Bishops and priests
living in the world – ‘seculars’ – brought the Word and the sacraments to the people.
Higher education and culture were provided largely by ‘religious’: monks, nuns and,
later, friars. Monastic cathedrals in cities, as at Winchester, Canterbury or
Westminster, not far from London, had schools.
From the 12th century, intellectual initiative began to pass from these schools to
universities. At universities in Paris or Oxford (founded between c.1167 and 1193),
the teachings of the Fathers and Doctors of the Church were modified by new learn-
ing. There was in the 12th century a revival of classical learning and a new system-
atic thinking about God, man, civil society and the universe: a Renaissance. At the
12th century School of Chartres, France, this learning and philosophy were human-
ist (see p. 78), valuing human life in itself as well as as a preparation for heavenly life.
Intel lect ual activity in the new universities was led less by secular clergy than by
friars, members of the new orders founded by St Dominic and St Francis to evan-
gelize the growing cities. Dominic’s Order of Preachers, distinguished in logic and
intel lect ual enquiry, revived professional academic philosophy and theology.44 2 · MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE: 1066–1500
Latin Fathers of the Church
Jerome(c.342–420), whose Latin translation
of the Bible from Greek and Hebrew into the
vulgar tongue of the Roman Empire, known
as the Vulgate, became the Bible of the
West.
Augustine of Hippo(354–430) was the chief
influence on western theology until the 13th
century.
Ambrose of Milan(c.340–97).
Pope Gregory the Great (c.540–604).The Chief Orders of monks
Benedictinesfollow the Rule of St Benedict
of Nursia (480–c.550), the foundation of
Western monasticism.Carthusianswere founded by St Bruno at La
Grande Chartreuse (1084).
Cistercians(from Cîteaux, where the order
was founded in 1098) were popularized by St
Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux in 1153.The Four Orders of Friars
(Lat. frater, Fr. frère, brother):
Franciscans, Friars Minor or Grey Friars,
founded by St Francis of Assisi in 1210.
Dominicans, Order of Preachers or Black
Friars, founded by St Dominic in 1216.
Carmelites or White Friars, founded in 1154.
Austin Friarswere founded in 1256: they
follow a rule based on the precepts of St
Augustine.