to postcolonial critics, who examine the works pro-
duced in or written about countries that have been
subject to European colonial powers in their history.
Since apartheid was instituted in a colonial area,
where the colonizer was oppressing the native resi-
dents, works addressing this area would fall within
the scope of postcolonial studies.
Similarly, in feminist criticism, works would be
examined to see how the patriarchal society domi-
nates women. Historically, an admonition of patri-
archal oppression can be found as far back as Mary
Wollstonecraft’s a vindication oF the riGhts
oF woMan (1792). In this manifesto, Wollstonecraft
contends that familial tyranny is unjust, that women
should be educated, and that the differentiation of
the sexes should cease. Many feminist texts have
emerged over the years. The works of Virginia
Woolf, Kate Chopin, Margaret Atwood, and
Toni Morrison are often analyzed to demonstrate
the oppression of women.
Racial oppression is frequently treated in lit-
erature. While this includes much of postcolonial
studies, it is not limited to them. In American
literature, there are poignant examples of racial
oppression. As a documentation of the slavery of
blacks in America, Frederick Douglass’s nar-
rative oF the LiFe oF Frederick douGLass, an
aMerican sLave, authenticates the experience of
living in a dominated minority during the 1800s.
Poetically, Langston Hughes’s works arising out
of the Harlem Renaissance illuminate the oppres-
sion of black Americans at that time. One of the
best examples of this is seen in his poem “I, Too,”
which is an answer to Walt Whitman’s famous “I
Hear America Singing.” In this, as in many of his
works, Hughes asserts black humanity, one of the
major focuses of the Harlem Renaissance. Remem-
bering Friere’s point that oppressors dehumanize the
oppressed, the need for the dominated to assert their
humanity is understandable. In the poem, Hughes
uses the metaphor of being sent to eat in the kitchen
when company comes to represent the differential
treatment of this era. The poem clearly subverts the
current social system, and Hughes writes that the
oppressed will grow stronger, indicating that one
day they will bring down the oppressors. However,
although the poem indicates the oppressed will rise
up against the dominant, it ends with the hopeful
wish that the oppressors will see their mistake and
change the system themselves. These works present
a small sampling of oppression evident throughout
much of literature.
See also Achebe, Chinua: anthiLLs^ oF^ the^
savannah; thinGs FaLL apart; Allende, Isabel:
house oF the spirits, the; Atwood, Marga-
ret: handMaid’s taLe, the; Black Elk: bLack
eLk speaks; Kesey, Ken: one FLew over the
cuckoo’s nest; Kincaid, Jamaica: sMaLL pLace,
a; Kundera, Milan: unbearabLe LiGhtness oF
beinG, the; London, Jack: white FanG; Mistry,
Rohinton: Fine baLance, a; Paine Thomas:
coMMon sense; Rand, Ayn: antheM; Reed, Ish-
mael: MuMbo JuMbo.
FURTHER READING
Awkward, Michael. Negotiating Difference: Race, Gen-
der, and the Politics of Positionality. Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1995.
Friere, Paulo. The Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York:
Continuum, 1993.
Frye, Marilyn. “Oppression.” In Race, Class, and Gen-
der: An Anthology, edited by Margaret L. Andersen
and Patricia Hill Collins, 37–41. Belmont, Calif.:
Wadsworth, 1992.
Johnson, Allan G. Privilege, Power, and Difference. New
York: McGraw Hill, 2001.
Marger, Martin N. Race and Ethnic Relations: American
and Global Perspectives. Belmont, Calif.: Wads-
worth, 2006.
Oppenheimer, Martin. The Hate Handbook: Oppressors,
Victims, and Fighters. New York: Lexington Books,
2005.
Smith, Barbara. “Toward a Black Feminist Criticism.”
In All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men,
But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women’s Studies,
edited by Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell Scott, and
Barbara Smith, Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist
Press, 1982, 157–175.
Tracey L. Marticek-Raimondoparenthood
Parenthood has been defined as a process of rearing
children. According to contemporary standards,
“parenthood” involves a number of daily responsi-78 parenthood