Atlas of Hispanic-American History

for the purpose of enhancing U.S. power

and has been tied closely to the United

States ever since.

Panamanians, like other Latin

Americans with experience of the

Roosevelt Corollary, resented U.S. dom-

ination of their country and long strug-

gled to reduce that domination. A treaty

ratified in 1939 removed the right of the

United States to intervene in Panama’s

internal affairs, while giving the United

States the right to intervene for the pur-

pose of defending the canal. A 1977 treaty

gave Panama possession of the canal

beginning in 2000, but did not take away

the right of the United States to defend

the canal’s neutrality. The most recent

American military intervention in

130 ATLAS OF HISPANIC-AMERICAN HISTORY

NICARAGUA

1909 Liberal dictator José Santos Zelaya discusses the possible

construction of a canal with Germany and Japan; in

response, the United States encourages the conservative

opposition and then dispatches the U.S. Marines.

1912–1933U.S. Marines occupy Nicaragua almost continuously;

the United States controls Nicaraguan finances.

1916 The Bryan-Chamorro Treaty gives the United States the right

to build a canal in Nicaragua.

1925–1926The marines briefly withdraw, but land again to ensure

the second term of conservative President Adolfo Díaz.

1927–1933Augusto Sandino leads an uprising to resist U.S.

occupation; the United States encourages the develop-

ment of the Nicaraguan National Guard to put down the

uprising.

1933 The marines withdraw.

HONDURAS

1905–1925Several U.S. military troop landings occur.

1928 United Fruit Company buys the Cuyamel Fruit Company and

begins to emerge as an important foreign political interest.

EL SALVADORA, HONDURAS, AND GUATEMALA

1906 The U.S. warship Marblehead is sent to settle a war between

Guatemala and the combined forces of Honduras and El

Salvador.

HONDURAS AND EL SALVADOR

1907 The United States intervenes to prevent war between

Honduras and El Salvador.

GUATEMALA

1920–1921When President Estrada Cabrera is overthrown by

liberals, the United States supports a military coup to replace

the liberal regime.

COSTA RICA AND PANAMA

1921 U.S. troops intervene in a Panama–Costa Rica border

dispute.

PANAMA

1903 The United States supports Panama’s movement for inde-

pendence from Colombia. The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty

authorizes the United States to build a canal and to maintain

it “in perpetuity.”

1904 U.S. troops land to suppress protests against the treaty.

1908–1918Four more troop inverventions occur.

1914 The Panama Canal opens.

1918 U.S. troops intervene first during presidential elections and

again in the Chiriqui province, where they protect United

Fruit Company lands for two years.

1934–1936The Hull-Alfaro Treaty makes Panama a U.S.

protectorate.

U.S. INTERVENTION IN CENTRAL AMERICA, 1903–1936