American or African heritage. As many
as 46 other racial gradations were recog-
nized. For example, one whose parents
were an African and a Native American
was a pardo or zambo; a child of an
African and a mestizo was a mestizo pri-
eto. Casta was a general term for any
nonwhite person who was not fully
Native American.
Race was not the only element
involved in determining a person’s sta-
tus. Despite the normally low status of
Native Americans, individual Native
American leaders—chiefs, or caciques—
might have considerable wealth and sta-
tus. A person of mixed white and NativeAmerican descent might be called an
Indian if he or she lived in Indian com-
munities, a mestizo if he or she lived in
Spanish colonial towns, or Spanish if he
or she became rich and influential
enough.Everyday Life
Spanish society was urban centered, and
Spanish-American societies even more
so. Wherever the Spanish went in the
New World, they established cities and
towns, usually on the same plan. There
was a large square in the middle, with
the city’s principal church on one side,
the municipal council building on anoth-
er, the residence of the royal governor or
governor’s representative on another,
and various shops and wealthy residences
on the remaining spots fronting the
square. Beyond the square extended a
boxlike grid of straight streets, and
beyond that a collection of temporary
huts, mainly for Native Americans serv-
ing the Spanish. With this simple plan,
Spanish-American cities could stay small
or grow indefinitely large, without losing
their central focus on church and crown.
Mexico City and Lima, as the first
viceregal capitals, were Spanish
America’s most prestigious cities, but
others grew fast. Potosí in what is now
Bolivia rode a silver boom to become the
largest city in the Hispanic world by
1650, with a population of 160,000. The
often extravagant and ornate architec-
ture in Spanish-American colonial
cities embodied a baroque aesthetic.
Flamboyant domes, spiraling twisted
columns, and heavy sculptural decora-
tion characterized churches and other
public buildings.Religion and
the MissionariesReligion was a basic part of Spanish colo-
nial life, and priests often accompanied
the conquistadores, to minister to their
spiritual needs and to begin the process
of Christianizing the Native Americans
in newly conquered areas. The first
archdioceses were established in Mexico
City, Lima, and Santo Domingo in 1545,
making the colonial church hierarchy
separate from that of Spain. The colonial44 ATLAS OF HISPANIC-AMERICAN HISTORY
SISTER JUANA INÉS DE LA CRUZ
The daughter of a Spanish military offi-
cer and a creole mother, Juana Inés de
la Cruz (1651–1695) learned to read at
age three and to write by the time she
was five. Juana begged her parents to
let her dress as a boy and attend univer-
sity, but they refused. At age nine Juana
left the Spanish colonial town San
Miguel Nepantla, Mexico, to live in
Mexico City, where she studied Latin.
News of the young girl’s intelligence
reached the viceroy, who invited her to
join his court. At age 17, Juana stunned
40 professors with her knowledge in an
oral examination arranged by the
viceroy. Although Juana attracted many
suitors with her intelligence and beauty,
she was determined to lead a scholarly
life. Rather than marry, in 1669 Juana
entered the convent of San Jerónimo
where she devoted the next 23 years to
writing poetry and philosophic studies
and conducting scientific studies. There
she also accumulated a library of more
than 4,000 volumes. Over the years, her
religious superiors attempted to dimin-
ish her scholarly activities. They con-
demned her controversial belief that women held the right to develop their minds as
well as their souls. In defense of women’s rights, Sister Juana wrote the poem
“Hombres necios que acussés” (“Foolish Men Who Accuse [Women]”) in 1691. Two
years later, however, she bowed to pressure from the church, sending officials a letter
using her own blood as ink, in which she vowed to relinquish all contact with the world.
She then stopped writing, gave away her extensive library and scientific materials, and
devoted the remainder of her life to her religious duties. Sister Juana died while nurs-
ing her fellow nuns during an epidemic. Several editions of her work were published in
Spain in the 18th century, including her well-known autobiography Repuesta a Sor
Filotea de la Cruz(“Reply to Sister Philotea of the Cross;” published in English as A
Woman of Genius).Sister Juana Inés de la Cruz
(Library of Congress)Ah stupid men, unreasonable
In blaming women’s nature,
Oblivious that your own acts
incite
The very faults you censure.
— Selection from Sister Juana
Inés de la Cruz’s
“Hombres necios...”