1124 ★ CHAPTER 28 A New Century and New Crisesback- and- forth migration. Given the
diminishing chance of aliens, legal
or not, visiting their original homes
and then returning, more and more
simply stayed put after entering the
United States.
In the continuing political debate
over immigration, as in other issues of
the day, long- standing political divi-
sions continue to simmer. Who has
the right to determine the status of
millions of undocumented workers—
the president, Congress, the states, the
courts, or private employers?
In the spring of 2006, the immigra-
tion issue suddenly burst again onto
the center stage of politics. As we have seen, the Hart- Celler Act of 1965 led
to a radical shift in the origins of those entering the United States, and espe-
cially the rapid growth of the Hispanic population. Many of these newcomers
bypassed traditional immigrant destinations and headed for areas in the Mid-
west, small- town New England, and the Upper South. Racial and ethnic diver-
sity was now a fact of life in the American heartland.
Alongside legal immigrants, undocumented newcomers made their way to
the United States, mostly from Mexico. At the end of 2005, it was estimated,
there were 11 million illegal aliens in the United States, 7 million of them
members of the workforce. Economists disagree about their impact. It seems
clear that the presence of large numbers of uneducated, low- skilled workers
pushes down wages at the bottom of the economic ladder, especially affect-
ing African- Americans. On the other hand, immigrants both legal and illegal
receive regular paychecks, spend money, and pay taxes. They fill jobs for which
American workers seem to be unavailable because the wages are so low. It is
estimated that more than one- fifth of construction workers, domestic workers,
and agricultural workers are in the United States illegally.
In 1986, the Reagan administration granted amnesty— that is, the right to
remain in the United States and become citizens— to 3 million illegal immi-
grants. During the 1990s, conservatives in states with significant populations of
illegal immigrants, especially California, called for a tough crackdown on their
entry and rights within the United States. As governor of Texas, by contrast,
George W. Bush managed to win Hispanic support and downplayed the immi-
gration issue. But in 2006, with many Americans convinced that the United
States had lost control of its borders and that immigration was in part responsi-
ble for the stagnation of real wages, the House of Representatives approved a billMembers of the Texas Minutemen patrolling the
U.S.-Mexico border. Claiming that the federal
government was failing to prevent undocu-
mented immigrants from entering the United
States, vigilantes tried to do so on their own.