Introduction to Political Theory

human values and reasons for action. To use John Rawls’s language, deep ecology

offers a comprehensive conception of the good for society and individuals, whereas

shallow ecology offers a less-than-comprehensive, possibly merely political

understanding of environmental values. Næss presents the idea of depth and

comprehensiveness in the form of a table with four levels, with level 1 being the

most comprehensive, or ‘deepest’.

Chapter 16 Ecologism 365

Level 4 Actions Individual behaviour

Level 3 Policies Particular policies carried out by governmental and non-
governmental agencies

Level 2 Platform principles Packages of policies derived from an ideological standpoint
or movement

Level 1 Ultimate values Grounded in, for example, a comprehensive philosophical or
religious position

Næss argues that we do not have to agree on ultimate values in order to engage

in deep ecological action; there is a process of moving up and down the stages, such

that action can be guided by a plurality of different sets of ultimate values. We will

explore the coherence of this idea shortly, but the point to make here is that the

criticism that deep ecology is intolerant because it fails to respect the pluralism

which exists in a modern society is not necessarily valid. Næss’s emphasis on the

plurality of ultimate values was, in part, born out of his experience in creating cross-

cultural peace and ecological activist movements. As Næss argues:

ecologically responsible policies are concerned only in part with pollution and

resource depletion. There are deeper concerns which touch upon principles of

diversity, complexity, autonomy, decentralization, symbiosis, egalitarianism, and

classlessness.

(Næss, 1973: 95)

What Næss sought to do was develop a set of ‘platform principles’ (level 2) – in

other words, a manifesto, albeit a non-dogmatic one – around which people with

diverse ultimate values can unite. Below are eight principles formulated by Næss

and his friend and fellow deep ecologist George Sessions while out on a hiking trip

in Death Valley, California:

1. The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth have
   value in themselves (synonyms: intrinsic value, inherent value). These values
   are independent of the usefulness of the non-human world for human purposes.


2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realisation of these values
   and are also values in themselves.


3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy
   vital human needs.


4. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial
   decrease of human population. The flourishing of non-human life requires such
   a decrease.