forward through the years by teamwork. From the
moment the raw film stock is purchased through
its exposure, processing, editing, and projection,
filmmakers depend on a variety of technology,
technicians, and craftspeople. And no matter how
clear filmmakers’ ideas may be at the start, their
work will change considerably, thanks to technol-
ogy and teamwork, between its early stages and the
final version released to the public.
Although many movie directors—working
under such pressures as producers’ schedules and
budgets—have been known for taking their power
all too seriously (being difficult on the set, throw-
ing tantrums, screaming at and even physically
assaulting members of the cast and crew, and rag-
ing at the front office), moviemaking is essentially a
collaborative activity.^3 Even then, as film scholar
Jon Lewis observes, “what ends up on the screen is
not only a miracle of persistence and inspiration
but also the result of certain practical concessions
to the limitations of the studio system.”^4
Film production is complicated by the cost-
effective, standard practice of shooting movies out
of chronological order. This means that the produc-
tion crew shoots the film not in the order that pre-
serves narrative continuity but in an order that
allows the most efficient use of human and finan-
cial resources. During production, a script supervi-
sor stays as close to the director as possible, for
this person is an invaluable source of factual infor-
mation about the shooting. The script supervisor
records all details of continuity from shot to shot,
ascertaining that costumes, positioning and orien-
tation of objects, and placement and movement of
actors are consistent in each successive shot and,
indeed, in all parts of the film. Overall, the pattern
of production includes securing and developing a
story with audience appeal; breaking the story into
units that can be shot most profitably; shooting;
establishing through editing the order in which
events will appear on-screen; and then adding the
sound, music, and special effects that help finish
the movie. Today, however, because the use of a
video assist camera permits a director to review
each take immediately after shooting, it is much
easier to match details from shot to shot.
The process once took place in the vast, factory-
like studios that dominated Hollywood and other
major film-production centers around the world.
Today it happens in the self-contained worlds of indi-
vidual production units, which often operate in leased
studio facilities. The differences between these
two modes of production are, in a sense, reflected
in movies’ production credits. In older films, all the
(brief ) production credits generally appear at the
beginning, with the names of the leading actors
sometimes repeated in (and constituting) the closing
credits. Today opening credits vary widely, but clos-
ing credits are lengthy and often include several hun-
dred people, accounting for virtually every person
who worked on a film or had something to do with
it (e.g., caterers, animal handlers, accountants).
Collective-bargaining agreements between produc-
ers and various labor unions—representing every
person who works on a union production—impose
clear definitions of all crewmembers’ responsibilities
as well as the size and placement of their screen
credits. These credits properly and legally acknowl-
edge people’s contributions to films.^5
This chapter provides an introduction to the his-
tory of motion-picture technologies and production
systems, showing that Hollywood is very much a
product of its past. Today’s Hollywood reflects how
well the industry has adapted to the challenges of
changing content, technologies, audiences, and exhi-
bition opportunities. It remains one of the world’s
largest industries, and the impact of AmericanTHE WHOLE EQUATION 485(^5) Because nonunion crews make many independent films,
these conventions of the division of labor and screen credit do
not necessarily apply to independent films. Often on such
films, crew members may be relatively inexperienced, not yet
qualified for union membership, or unwilling to play several
roles in return for the experience and screen credit. Govern-
ment agencies and volunteer individuals or organizations may
also be credited for their contributions.
(^3) Insights into the long hours and hard work that go into movie
production are provided in movies about making movies, which
show us that, in a world of large egos, collaboration can be a myth
and that many things go wrong on most movie sets. See “For Fur-
ther Viewing” at the end of this chapter for a list of such films.
See also Rudy Behlmer and Tony Thomas, Hollywood’s Holly-
wood: The Movies about the Movies(Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel, 1975).
(^4) Jon Lewis, Whom God Wishes to Destroy—: Francis Coppola
and the New Hollywood(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press,
1995), p. 4.