algorithm, we usually want to solve problems quickly and employ heuristicsor mental
shortcuts to solve most problems. For example, when we’re not sure how to spell the word
receive, rather than look up the word in the dictionary, we usuallyfollow the heuristic “I
before E, except after C, or when sounded like ‘ay,’ as in neighbor and weigh.” A heuristic
suggests but does not guarantee a solution to a problem, and can result in incorrect
solutions. Sometimes after trying to find a solution to a problem for a while, the solution
suddenly comes to us. Insightis a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a
problem. For example, after trying to unscramble the letters NEBOTYA to form a word,
you suddenly realize that the word is bayonet. When we don’t have a clue how to solve a
problem, we often start with a trial and error approach.This approach involves trying
possible solutions and discarding those that do not work. If we need a combination lock for
a locker and find an old lock in the drawer, we can try combinations of three numbers that
come to mind, but this can be time consuming and may not lead to a solution. Trial and
error works best when choices are limited. After we have tried to solve a problem, we need
to evaluate the results. How will we decide if we have solved the problem? Using critical
thinking, we think reflectively and evaluate the evidence. We reason by transforming infor-
mation to reach conclusions. Inductive reasoninginvolves reasoning from the specific to the
general, forming concepts about all members of a category based on some members, which is
often correct but may be wrong if the members we have chosen do not fairly represent all of
the members. Deductive reasoninginvolves reasoning from the general to the specific.
Deductions are logically correct and lead to good answers when the initial rules or assump-
tions are true. Have we attained our goal? Over time, we may profit from rethinking and
redefining problems and solutions.Obstacles to Problem Solving
Sometimes we are unsuccessful at solving a problem; we cannot attain our goal. What
hinders our ability to solve the problem? Obstacles to problem solving and biases in reasoning
can keep us from reaching a goal. Fixationis an inability to look at a problem from a fresh
perspective, using a prior strategy that may not lead to success. If we’ve solved 10 prob-
lems in a 50-problem set using one rule, we tend to use the same rule to solve the 11th.
This tendency to approach the problem in the same way that has been successful previ-
ously is a type of fixation called mental set.We may get stuck on the 11th problem
because it requires a different rule from the first 10. Another type of fixation that can be
an obstacle to problem solving is called functional fixedness,a failure to use an object in
an unusual way. For example, if people are carrying plastic tablecloths to a picnic area
when it starts to rain, and they get soaked because they aren’t wearing raincoats and don’t
have umbrellas, they are evidencing functional fixedness. They could have used the table-
cloths to protect them from the rain. Using decision-making heuristics when we problem
solve can result in errors in our judgments. Amos Tversky and Nobel prize winner Daniel
Kahneman studied how and why people make illogical choices. They looked at two types
of research. Normative studies ask how we oughtto make decisions, and do not actually
reflect how people make decisions. Descriptive studies look at how decisions are actually
being made. Tversky and Kahneman found we often make erroneous decisions based on
intuition. Under conditions of uncertainty, we often use the availability heuristic,esti-
mating the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind. For
example, many people who think nothing of taking a ride in a car are afraid to ride in an
airplane because they think it is so dangerous. In fact, riding in an airplane is much safer;
we are far less likely to be injured or die as a result of riding in an airplane. Other errors
in decision making result from using the representative heuristic,a mental shortcut by136 STEP 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High
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