Four major models account for organization of information in LTM:1 .Hierarchies—systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more
specific classes.
1 .Concepts—mental representations of related things.
1 .Prototypes—the most typical examples of a concept.
2 .Semantic networks—more irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies,
with multiple links from one concept to others.
3 .Schemas—frameworks of basic ideas and preconceptions about people, objects,
and events based on past experience.
3 .Script—a schema for an event.
4 .Connectionism—theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connec-
tions between neurons, many of which can work together to process a single
memory.Artificial intelligence (AI)—a field of study in which computer programs are
designed to simulate human cognitive abilities such as reasoning, learning, and under-
standing language.Neural network or Parallel processing model—clusters of neurons that are intercon-
nected (and computer models based on neuronlike systems) and process information
simultaneously, automatically, and without our awareness.Long-term potentiation or LTP—an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after
brief, rapid stimulation and possibly the neural basis for learning and memory,
involving an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses
within neural networks.The biology of memory:- The thalamusis involved in encoding sensory memory into STM.
- The hippocampusis involved in putting information from STM into LTM.
- The amygdalais involved in the storage of emotional memories.
- The cerebellumprocesses implicit memories and seems to store procedural memory
and classically conditioned memories.
Retrieval—the process of getting information out of memory storage. Key terms and
concepts associated with retrieval include:- Retrieval cue—a stimulus that provides a trigger to get an item out of memory.
- Priming—activating specific associations in memory either consciously or
unconsciously. - Recognition—identification of something as familiar such as multiple choice and
matching questions on a test. - Recall—retrieval of information from LTM in the absence of any other informa-
tion or cues such as for an essay question or fill-in on a test. - Reconstruction—retrieval that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing
details to complete a picture from incomplete stored information. - Confabulation—process of combining and substituting memories from events
other than the one you’re trying to remember. - Flashbulb memory—vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or
event. - Misinformation effect—incorporation of misleading information into memories
of a given event.
142 STEP 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High
http://www.ebook3000.com