stimulation is below threshold. The strength of the
action potential is constant whenever it occurs.
Altruism—an unselfish interest in helping others.
Alzheimer’s disease—a fatal degenerative disease in
which brain neurons progressively die, causing loss
of memory, reasoning, emotion, control of bodily
functions, then death.
Amnesia—a loss of memory.
Amygdala—part of the limbic system of the brain
that influences emotions such as aggression, fear,
and self-protective behaviors; is involved in the
storage of emotional memories.
Anal stage—Freud’s second stage of development in
which the child receives pleasure from the anal
region, especially during elimination.
Analytical—one of the three parts of Sternberg’s tri-
archic theory of intelligence; is similar to what is
tested by traditional IQ tests and what we are asked
to do in school: compare, contrast, analyze, and
figure out cause-effect relationships.
Anchoring effect—the tendency to be influenced by
a suggested reference point, pulling our response
toward that point.
Androgyny—the presence of desirable masculine and
feminine characteristics in one individual.
Animism—belief of a preoperational child that all
things are living just like him or her according to
Piaget.
Anorexia nervosa—eating disorder more common in
the adolescent female characterized by weight less
than 85% of normal, abnormally restrictive food
consumption, and an unrealistic body image that
she is still fat.
Anterograde amnesia—a disorder caused by brain
damage that disrupts a person’s ability to form new
long-term memories of events that occur after the
time of the brain damage.
Antidepressant drugs—medicines which elevate
mood states; three main categories include tri-
cyclics (such as Elavil), MAO inhibitors (such as
Nardil), and SSRI inhibitors (such as Prozac).
Antipsychotic drugs—powerful medicines that
lessen agitated behavior, reduce tension, decrease
hallucinations and delusions, improve social
behavior, and produce better sleep behavior espe-
cially in schizophrenic patients (also called
neuroleptics).
Antisocial personality disorder—a disorder charac-
terized by a failure to conform to standards of
decency; repeated lying and stealing; a failure to
sustain lasting, loving relationships; low tolerance
for boredom; and a complete lack of guilt.
Anxiety—a feeling of impending doom or disaster
from a specific or unknown source that is charac-
terized by mood symptoms of tension, agitation,
and apprehension; bodily symptoms of sweating,
muscular tension, and increased heart rate and
blood pressure; as well as cognitive symptoms of
worry, rumination, and distractibility.
Anxiety hierarchy—a listing of frightening events in
increasing order of severity used in systematic
desensitization treatment for phobias.
Anxiolytics—anti-anxiety drugs (tranquilizers) such
as benzodiazepines including Librium, Valium,
Xanax, and Buspirone.
Aphasia—impairment of the ability to understand
(receptive) or use (expressive) language.
Approach-approach conflict—a conflict in which
the individual must choose between two positive
stimuli or circumstances.
Approach-avoidance conflict—a conflict in which
the individual must decide whether or not to
choose a circumstance involving a single stimulus
that has both positive and negative characteristics.
Aptitude test—test that measures what our potential
is and whether or not we will benefit from some
training; predicts our future capacity to learn and
develop.
Archetypes—according to Jung, a number of uni -
versal themes that are part of the collective
unconscious.
Arousal—level of alertness, wakefulness, and activa-
tion caused by activity in the central nervous
system; optimal level varies with the person and the
activity.
Artificial intelligence (AI)—a field of study in which
computer programs are designed to simulate
human cognitive abilities such as reasoning, learn-
ing, and understanding language.
Artificialism—the belief of the preoperational child
that all objects are made by people.
Assimilation—process by which we incorporate new
information into our existing cognitive structures
or schemas.
Association areas—regions of the cerebral cortex
that do not have specific sensory or motor func-
tions, but are involved in higher mental functions
such as thinking, planning, and communicating.
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory—assumes
three different memory systems: sensory memory,314 á Glossary
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