324 i Glossary
Reign of Terror (1793–1794) The period of most
extreme violence during the French Revolution.
reincarnation Rebirth; a belief of both Buddhism
and Hinduism.
Renaissance The revival of learning in Europe
begin ning about 1300 and continuing to about
160 0.
reparations The payment of war debts by the
losing side.
repartamiento In the Spanish colonies, a replace-
ment for the encomienda system that limited the
number of working hours for laborers and pro-
vided for fair wages.
Revolution of 1905 Strikes by urban workers and
peasants in Russia; prompted by shortages of food
and by Russia’s loss to Japan in 1905.
Revolutions of 1848 Democratic and nationalis-
tic revolutions, most of them unsuccessful, that
swept through Europe.
romanticism A literary and artistic movement in
nineteenth-century Europe; emphasized emotion
over reason.
Russifi cation A tsarist program that required non-
Russians to speak only Russian and provided
education only for those groups loyal to Russia.
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) Wa r bet ween
Japan and Russia over Manchurian territory;
resulted in the defeat of Russia by the Japanese
navy.
samurai The military class of feudal Japan.
Sandinistas A left-wing group that overthrew the
dictatorship of Nicaraguan Anastacio Somoza in
1979.
sati The custom among the higher castes of Hindu-
ism of a widow throwing herself on the burning
funeral pyre of her husband.
scholar-gentry The Chinese class of well-educated
men from whom many of the bureaucrats were
chosen.
Scientifi c Revolution A European intellectual
movement in the seventeenth century that estab-
lished the basis for modern science.
Second Industrial Revolution The phase of the
Industrial Revolution beginning about 1850 that
applied the use of electricity and steel to the
manufacturing process.
self-strengthening movement A late nineteenth-
century movement in which the Chinese mod-
ernized their army and encouraged Western invest-
ment in factories and railways.
separation of powers The division of powers
among the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches of government.
Sepoy Rebellion (1857) Revolt of Indian soldiers
against the British; caused by a military practice
in violation of the Muslim and Hindu faiths.
sepoys South Asian soldiers who served in the Brit-
ish army in India.
serf A peasant who is bound to the land he or she
works.
service industries Occupations that provided a
service rather than a manufactured or agricultural
product.
Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) Confl ict fought
in Europe and its overseas colonies; in North
America, known as the French and Indian War.
shamanism A belief in powerful natural spirits that
are infl uenced by shamans, or priests.
shariah The body of law that governs Muslim
society.
Shi’ite The branch of Islam that holds that the
leader of Islam must be a descendant of Muham-
mad’s family.
Shinto The traditional Japanese religion based on
veneration of ancestors and spirits of nature.
shogun Military leaders under the bakufu.
shogunate The rule of the shoguns.
Silk Roads Caravan routes and sea lanes between
China and the Middle East.
Six-Day War A brief war between Israel and a
number of Arab states in 1967; during this
confl ict, Israel took over Jerusalem, the Golan
Heights, the Sinai Peninsula, and the West Bank.
slash-and-burn cultivation An agricultural method
in which farmers clear fi elds by cutting and burn-
ing trees, then use the ashes as fertilizer.
social contract Enlightenment concept of the
agreement made by the people living in a state of
nature to give up some of their rights in order for
governments to be established.
Social Darwinism The application of Darwin’s
philosophy of natural selection to human society.
socialism Political movement originating in
nineteenth-century Europe; emphasized state
control of the major means of production.
Solidarity A Polish trade union that began the
nation’s protest against communist rule.