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new learning on the recall of old information. Someone asks us for our old address and it
is blocked because our new address interferes with our recall of it.
Hint:Proactive interference is forward-acting.Retroactive interference is backward-acting.
If we learn A, then B, and we can’t remember B because A got in the way, we are experienc-
ing proactive interference. If we learn A, then B, and we can’t remember A because B got
in the way, we are experiencing retroactive interference.
Sigmund Freud believed that repression(unconscious forgetting) of painful memories
occurs as a defense mechanism to protect our self-concepts and minimize anxiety. Freud
believed that the submerged memory still lingered in the unconscious mind, and with
proper therapy, patience, and effort, these memories could be retrieved. Repressed
memories are a controversial area of research today, with Elizabeth Loftus being one
of the strongest opponents. She believes that rather than the memory of traumatic events,
such as child molestation, being suddenly remembered during therapy, this phenomenon is
more a result of the active reconstruction of memory and, thus, confabulation,filling in
gaps in memory by combining and substituting memories from events other than the one
we are trying to remember. Loftus has found that when we try to remember details at
an accident scene, our emotional state, the questions a police offer may ask, and other
confusing inconsistencies may result in confabulation. When asked how fast a car was
going when it bumped, smashed, or collided into another vehicle, our estimate of the speed
would probably differ depending on whether bumped or collided was part of the question.
This misinformation effect occurs when we incorporate misleading information
into our memory of an event. Forgetting what really happened, or distortion of informa-
tion at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information—putting
words in someone else’s mouth—or remember something we see in the movies or on
the Internet as actually having happened. This is a misattribution error,also referred
to as source amnesia.
Research has shown that we can improve our memory. Applying the information in
this section, we can improve our memory for information in AP Psychology by over-
learning, spending more time actively rehearsing material, relating the material to our-
selves, using mnemonic devices, activating retrieval cues, recalling information soon
after we learn it, minimizing interference, spacing out study sessions, and testing our
own knowledge.Language
Languageis a flexible system of spoken, written, or signed symbols that enables us to com-
municate our thoughts and feelings. Language transmits knowledge from one generation to
the next, and expresses the history of a culture.Building Blocks: Phonemes and Morphemes
Language is made up of basic sound units called phonemes.The phonemes themselves
have no meaning. Of about 100 different phonemes worldwide, English uses about 45.
Morphemesare the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes,
and suffixes. Most morphemes are a combination of phonemes. For example, farm is made
up of three phonemes (sounds) and one morpheme (meaning). Farmer has two mor-
phemes. By adding “-er” to farm we change the meaning of the word to an individual who
farms.Cognition ❮ 133TIP