is to help them change these irrationally negative beliefs into more positive and realistic
views. Failures are attributed to things outside their control and successes are seen as
personal accomplishments. Beck suggests specific tactics, including evaluating the evidence
the client has for and against automatic thoughts, reattributing the blame to situational
factors rather than the client’s incompetence, and discussing alternative solutions to the
problem. For example, instead of blaming yourself for being stupid when the entire class
does poorly on a math exam, you might substitute the thought that you didn’t have an
adequate opportunity to study, and the test may not have been valid.
Cognitive therapies have been demonstrated to be effective in treating depression,
eating disorders, chronic pain, marital discord, and anxiety disorders (generalized anxiety
disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, and social phobia).Biological/Biomedical Treatments
Biological psychologists believe that abnormal behavior results from neurochemical imbal-
ances, abnormalities in brain structures, or possibly some genetic predisposition.
Treatments, therefore, include psychopharmacotherapy(the use of psychotropic drugs to
treat mental disorders), electroconvulsive therapy, and psychosurgery. Medical doctors,
psychiatric nurse practitioners, and a limited number of clinical psychologists can prescribe
psychoactive drugs. Four major classifications of psychotropic drugs are anxiolytics
(antianxiety medications), antidepressants,stimulants, and neuroleptics(antipsychotics).Tranquilizers
Anxiolytics, also called tranquilizers antianxiety drugs, include quick-acting benzodiazepines
such as the widely prescribed drugs Valium (diazepam), Librium (chlordiazepoxide), and
Xanax (alprazolam); and slow-acting BuSpar (buspirone). Benzodiazepines increase availabil-
ity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the limbic system and reticular activating
system where arousal is too high, reducing the anxiety felt by the patient. Other therapies such
as visualization, relaxation, and time management should be used in conjunction with drugs
so that the drugs can be tapered off over time, because patients can develop unpleasant side
effects and build up a toleranceto these compounds. Anxiolytics are helpful in the treatment
of post-traumatic stress disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, and generalized anxiety
disorder.Antidepressants
Antidepressant medications elevate mood by making monoamine neurotransmitters
including serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine more available at the synapse to
stimulate postsynaptic neurons. Types of antidepressants include monoamine oxidase
inhibitors (MAOIs), which inhibit the effects of chemicals that break down norepinephrine
and serotonin; tricyclics, which inhibit reuptake of serotonin; selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs), which inhibit reuptake only of serotonin; and atypical antidepressants
(sometimes called non-SSRIs), some of which may inhibit reuptake of serotonin, norepi-
nephrine, and dopamine, or a combination of two of them. Commonly advertised
SSRls include paroxetine(Paxil), fluoxetine(Prozac), sertraline(Zoloft), citalopram (Celexa,
Lexapro), and fluvoxamine (Luvox). Non-SRRIs include bupropion (Wellbutrin)
and velafaxine HCL (Effexor XR). They have all been found effective for treating
depression, and some have also been found effective for treating anxiety disorders, such as
obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
For treatment of bipolar disorder, lithium has been widely used to stabilize mood, alone or
with antidepressants. Anti-seizure medicines used to treat epilepsy, such as valproic acid
(Depakene), divalproex (Depakote), and Topiramate (Topamax) have also been used.234 ❯ STEP 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High