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Informational social influence—accepting others’
opinions about reality, especially in conditions of
uncertainity.
In-groups—groups of which we are members.
Inhibitory neurotransmitter—chemical secreted at
terminal button that reduces or prevents neural
impulses in the postsynaptic dendrites.
Insight learning—the sudden appearance (often
creative) or awareness of a solution to a problem.
Insomnia—the inability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep.
Instinct—inherited, complex automatic species-
specific behavior.
Instinct theory—theory of motivation that physical
and mental instincts such as curiosity and fearful-
ness cause us to act.
Instinctive drift—the tendency of an animal to
revert to instinctive behavior which interferes
with learning.
Instrumental aggression—hostile act intended to
achieve some goal.
Instrumental learning—learning that occurs when
a response is weakened or strengthened by its con-
sequence.
Intellectualization—Freudian defense mechanism
that involves reducing anxiety by reacting to emo-
tional situations in a detached, unemotional way.
Intelligence—the global capacity to act purpose-
fully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively
with the environment.
Intelligence quotient (IQ)—mental age divided by
chronological age multiplied by 100.
Interference theory—learning some items may pre-
vent retrieving others, especially when the items
are similar.
Intermittent reinforcement—the occasional rein-
forcement of a particular behavior; produces
responding that is more resistant to extinction
than continuous reinforcement.
Internal locus of control—based on Julian Rotter’s
research, the belief that you control what happens
to you through your own individual effort and
behavior; mastery of your own identity.
Internalization—the process of absorbing informa-
tion from a specified social environmental context
(according to Lev Vygotsky).
Interneuron—nerve cell in the CNS that transmits
impulses between sensory and motor neurons.
Intimacy vs. isolation—In Erikson’s theory, the abil-
ity to establish close and loving relationships is pri-
mary task of late adolescence and early adulthood.
Intrinsic motivation—a desire to perform an activ-
ity for its own sake rather than an external reward.
Introvert—Jungian term for the opposite of
extravert; a person with a tendency to get energy
from individual pursuits; a person with the trait of
shyness, the desire to avoid large groups, and who
prefers to pay attention to private mental experi-
ences (according to Eysenck).
James–Lange theory—the conscious experience of
emotion results from one’s awareness of auto-
nomic arousal and comes only after the behavioral
response to situations.
Jigsaw classroom—Aronson and Gonzales devised
learning experience where students of diverse
backgrounds are first placed in expert groups
where they learn one part of lesson and then share
that information in jigsaw groups made up of one
student from each of the expert groups. Students
are dependent upon each other, self-esteem and
achievement of “poorer” students improves, and
former stereotypes are diminished.
Klinefelter’s syndrome—males with XXY sex chro-
mosomes.
Language—communication system based on words
and grammar; spoken, written or gestured words
and the way they are combined to communicate
meaning.
Latency stage—fourth of the Freudian stages of
development (6-12); sublimation of sexual pleas-
ure into school work and other activities; if libido
fixated here results in feelings of inferiority and
poor self concept.
Latent content—according to Freud, the underly-
ing meaning of a dream.
Latent learning—learning when no apparent
rewards are present; it only becomes apparent
when there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Tolman’s rat experiment.
Law of effect—Thorndike’s observation that behav-
iors followed by rewards are strengthened and
behaviors followed by punishment are weakened.
Learning principle that behavior is acquired by
virtue of its consequences.
Learned helplessness—the feeling of futility and
passive resignation that results from inability to
avoid repeated aversive events.
Learning—a relatively permanent change in behav-
ior as a result of experience.
Lesions—interruptions in tissue that result from
destruction of tissue by injury, tumors, scarring;Glossary ❮ 325