100 CHAPTER 5 | Field Methods in Archaeology and Paleoanthropology
Paleoanthropology and archaeology are the anthropo-
logical specialties most concerned with our past. They
share a focus on prehistory, a conventional term used
to refer to the period of time before written records. For
some people, the term prehistoric might conjure up im-
ages of “primitive” cavemen and cavewomen, but it does
not imply a lack of history or any inferiority—merely a
lack of written history. Archaeologists also focus on the
cultural remains of peoples living since the invention
of writing, such as the makers of the Bamiyan Buddhas
and the oil paintings buried in caves behind them as de-
scribed in the chapter opener.^1 The next several chapters
of this book focus on the past; this chapter examines the
methods archaeologists and paleoanthropologists use to
study that past.
Most of us are familiar with some kind of archaeologi-
cal material: a coin dug out of the earth, a fragment of an
ancient pot, a spear point used by some ancient hunter.
Finding and cataloguing such objects are often thought
to be the chief goal of archaeology. This was true up until
the early 20th century, when professional and amateur ar-
chaeologists alike collected cultural treasures, but the situa-
tion changed by the mid-20th century. Today, the aim is to
use archaeological remains to reconstruct the culture and
worldview of past human societies. Archaeologists examine
every recoverable detail from past societies, including all
kinds of structures (not just palaces and temples), hearths,
garbage dumps, bones, and plant remains. Although it may
appear that archaeologists are digging up things, they are
really digging up human biology, behavior, and beliefs.
Similarly, paleoanthropologists who study the physical
remains of our ancestors and other ancient primates do
more than find and catalogue old bones. Paleoanthropolo-
gists recover, describe, and organize these remains to see
what they can tell us about human biological evolution.
It is not so much a case of finding the ancient bones but
finding out what the bones mean.
Recovering Cultural
and Biological Remains
Archaeologists and paleoanthropologists face a dilemma.
The only way to thoroughly investigate our past is to exca-
vate sites where biological and cultural remains are found.
Unfortunately, excavation results in the site’s destruction.
Thus researchers strive to excavate in such a way that the
location and context of everything recovered, no matter
how small, are precisely recorded. These records help sci-
entists make sense of the data and enhance our knowledge
of the past. Knowledge that can be derived from physical
and cultural remains diminishes dramatically if accurate
and detailed records of the excavation are not kept. As an-
thropologist Brian Fagan has put it,
The fundamental premise of excavation is that all
digging is destructive, even that done by experts.
The archaeologist’s primary responsibility, there-
fore, is to record a site for posterity as it is dug
because there are no second chances.^2Archaeologists work with artifacts, any object fash-
ioned or altered by humans—a flint scraper, a basket, an
axe, or such things as house ruins or walls. An artifact
expresses a facet of human culture. Because it is something
that someone made, archaeologists like to say that an arti-
fact is a product or representation of human behavior and
beliefs, or, in more technical terms, artifacts are material
culture.
Artifacts are not considered in isolation; rather, they
are integrated with biological and ecological remains. Such
ecofacts, the natural remains of plants and animals found
in the archaeological record, convey much about associated
artifacts. Archaeologists also focus on features—non-por-
table elements such as hearths and architectural elements
such as walls—that are preserved in the archaeological
record. Just as important as the artifacts and physical re-
mains is the way they were left in the ground. For example,
what people do with the things they have made, how they
dispose of them, and how they lose them reflect important
aspects of human culture. In other words, context allows
archaeologists to understand the cultures of the past.
Similarly, context provides important information
about biological remains. It provides information about
which fossils are earlier or later in time than other fossils.
Also, by noting the association of ancient human fossils
with the remains of other species, the paleoanthropologist
may make significant progress in reconstructing environ-
mental settings of the past.prehistory A conventional term used to refer to the period
of time before the appearance of written records; does not deny
the existence of history, merely of written history.
artifact Any object fashioned or altered by humans.
material culture The durable aspects of culture, such as
tools, structures, and art.
ecofact The natural remains of plants and animals found in
the archaeological record.
feature A non-portable element such as a hearth or an archi-
tectural element such as a wall that is preserved in the archaeo-
logical record.(^1) Bonn-Muller, E. (2009). Oldest oil paintings: Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Ar-
chaeology 62 (1); Cotte, M. (2008). Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrom-
etry. doi: 10.1039/b801358f.
(^2) Fagan, B. M. (1995). People of the earth (8th ed., p. 19). New York:
HarperCollins.