Evolution And History

106 CHAPTER 5 | Field Methods in Archaeology and Paleoanthropology

More obvious sites, such as the human-made mounds or

tells of the Middle East, are easier to spot from the ground,

for the country is open. But it is more difficult to locate

ruins, even those that are well above ground, where there

is a heavy forest cover. Thus the discovery of archaeological

sites is strongly affected by local geography and climate.

Some sites may be spotted by changes in vegetation.

For example, the topsoil of ancient storage and refuse pits

is often richer in organic matter than that of the surround-

ing areas, and so it grows distinctive vegetation. At Tikal,

an ancient Maya site in Guatemala, breadnut trees usually

grow near the remains of ancient houses, so archaeologists

can use these trees as guideposts.

have been used by archaeolo-

gists since the 1920s and

are widely used today.

Among other things,

such photographs were

used for the discovery

and interpretation of the

huge geometric and zoo-

morphic (from Latin for

“animal-shaped”) mark-

ings on the coastal desert

of Peru. More recently a

variety of innovations

in the geographic and

geologic sciences have

been incorporated into

archaeological surveys

and other aspects of re-

search. Innovations such

as geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing,

and ground penetrating radar (GPR) complement tradi-

tional archaeological exploration methods.

High-resolution aerial photographs, including satel-

lite imagery, resulted in the astonishing discovery of over

500 miles of prehistoric roadways connecting sites in the

four-corners region of the United States (where Arizona,

New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah meet) with other sites

in ways that archaeologists had never suspected. This dis-

covery led to a new understanding of prehistoric Pueblo

Indian economic, social, and political organization. Evi-

dently, large centers in this region governed a number of

smaller satellite communities, mobilized labor for large

public works, and allowed for the distribution of goods

over substantial distances.

Here a diver recovers antique amphorae (the traditional containers

for transporting wine, olives, olive oil, grain, and other commodi-

ties) from the site of a shipwreck in the Mediterranean Sea near

the village of Kas, Turkey. The shipwreck dates back to the time

of the Trojan War (over 3,000 years ago). Underwater archaeol-

ogists—led in this expedition by George Bass from the Institute

of Nautical Archaeology of Texas A & M University collaborating

with the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology in Istanbul,

Turkey—can reconstruct facets of the past, ranging from an-

cient trade routes and and shipbuilding techniques, through the

analysis of such remains.

© WaterFrame/Alamy

© Charles Walker/Topfoto/The Image Works

Pacific

Ocean

PERU

ECUADOR

COLOMBIA

CHILE

BRAZIL

BOLIVIA

Nazca Machu

Picchu

Highlands

Rainforest

Desert coast

Some archaeological features are best seen from the air, such as this

massive figure of a monkey made in prehistoric times on the Nazca

Desert of Peru. Ancient people selectively removed the top layer of

reddish stones thus exposing the light-colored earth below.