282 Assessment Psychology
intelligence. In addition, because of the profile of subtest
scores it offered, compared to the single IQ score or mental age
equivalent available from the Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler-
Bellevue found applications in clinical health settings as a
measure not only of intellectual ability but also of features of
neuropsychological impairment and disordered thinking.
A revised Wechsler-Bellevue-II appeared in 1946, and
three further revisions of the test were published as the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), the most recent
being the WAIS-III (Wechsler, 1997). The basic format and
individual subtests were also extended downward to provide
versions for use with young people: the Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children (WISC) (Wechsler, 1949), the most re-
cent version of which is the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), and
the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
(WPPSI) (Wechsler, 1967), with its most recent version
being the WPPSI-R (Wechsler, 1989).
The Kaufman Scales
Although numerous other intelligence tests employing
Binet’s mental age concept or Wechsler’s statistical approach
have appeared, none has approached the visibility or popular-
ity of these two measures. Perhaps most notable after Binet
and Wechsler among intelligence test developers is Alan
Kaufman, who in addition to writing extensively about the
assessment of intelligence (Kaufman, 1990, 1994) devel-
oped his own general intelligence measures for children—
the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC)
(Kaufman & Kaufman, 1983)—and for adolescents and
adults—the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test
(KAIT; Kaufman & Kaufman, 1993). Kaufman’s measures
differed in two important respects from their predecessors.
First, reflecting a theoretical rather than an empirical ap-
proach, tasks were chosen not by testing how trial par-
ticipants would respond to them, but by formulating certain
constructs concerning the nature of intellectual functioning
and using tasks that were considered likely to assess these
constructs. Second, Kaufman included subtests designed to
provide achievement as well as IQ scores, including assess-
ment of abilities in reading and arithmetic.
Brief Methods
Along with developing full-length measures, Kaufman stimu-
lated contemporary efforts to construct brief tests of intelli-
gence. A quest for brief methods has long been common to all
types of psychological assessment, and intelligence testing
provided especially fertile ground for developing short forms
of existing measures and constructing new measures that were
short to begin with. The structure of Wechsler’s scales offered
examiners obvious possibilities for replacing the full WAIS or
WISC with a selection of subtests they believed would be suf-
ficient for their purposes. As reviewed by Campbell (1998)
and Kaufman (1990), many such beliefs became formalized
as short forms comprising from two to six subtests and
achieving varying success in estimating Wechsler IQ. The
most promising compromises between saving time and ob-
taining sufficient data have been (a) the utilization of seven-
subtest short forms for the WAIS-R and the WAIS-III, which
have shown correlations in the high .90s with Full Scale IQ
and provide dependable estimates of Verbal and Performance
IQ as well (Ryan & Ward, 1999; Ward, 1990); and (b) the se-
lection of an eight-subtest short form of the WISC-III that
yields dependable estimates of both the IQ and Index Scores
calculated for this measure (Donders, 1997).
Kaufman influenced these developments by constructing a
new measure, the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT),
which includes tasks measuring verbal facility and nonverbal
reasoning and provides a composite score that can be used to
estimate intellectual functioning for persons age 4 to 90
(Kaufman & Kaufman, 1990). The K-BIT became suffi-
ciently popular among practitioners to stimulate construction
of numerous other new measures consisting of a small num-
ber of traditional kinds of subtests, the most visible of these
being the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI;
Psychological Corporation, 1999) and the Wide-Range Intel-
ligence Test (WRIT; Glutting, Adams, & Sheslow, 1999).Frequency of Test UseThe frequency information given about the use of the
Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales derives from extensive
survey data. Attention to the frequency with which various
tests are used has characterized assessment psychology at
least as far back as surveys conducted in 1934 and 1946 (see
Loutit & Browne, 1947). Sundberg (1961) expanded on these
earlier surveys with a nationwide sampling of test usage
across a variety of clinical agencies and institutions, and his
methodology was later repeated on a larger scale (Brown &
McGuire, 1976; Lubin, Larsen, & Matarazzo, 1984; Lubin,
Wallis, & Paine, 1971; and Piotrowski & Keller, 1989).
Other informative surveys have queried individual psy-
chologists rather than agencies concerning the frequency
with which they use various tests, including large samples
of clinical psychologists (Archer & Newsom, 2000; Camara,
Nathan, & Puente, 2000; Watkins, Campbell, Nieberding, &
Hallmark, 1995), neuropsychologists (Butler, Retzlaff, &
Vanderploeg, 1991; Camara et al., 2000; Lees-Haley, Smith,
Williams, & Dunn, 1995), school psychologists (Kamphaus,