372 Industrial-Organizational Psychology
(1940) found that those reporting to work in industry did not
call themselves industrial psychologists.
After World War II, employment opportunities outside of
academia exploded. Each branch of the armed services cre-
ated centers of research activity to continue the benefits of
World War II efforts. A number of psychological research or-
ganizations, consulting firms, and university research centers
were formed. Private industry continued to hire I-O psychol-
ogists, and some companies established their own research
groups. Areas of activities included job analysis and job eval-
uation, salaries and wages, selection and placement, promo-
tions, training, performance appraisal, job satisfaction and
morale, counseling and guidance, labor relations, industrial
hygiene, accidents and safety, and equipment design (e.g.,
Canter, 1948). In 1959, McCollom found at least 1,000 psy-
chologists who were employed full-time industry in the
United States (McCollom, 1959).
Thirty years later, Howard (1990) reported that of the
1,739 SIOP members who responded to her survey and were
employed full-time, 36% were employed in academic settings
and 57% reported working in industry, including private or-
ganizations (21%), public organizations (7%), and consulting
(29%). Eight percent responded that they worked in other set-
tings (e.g., health service, research organizations). O’Connor
and Ryan (1996) reported that of the 1,873 SIOP members
who responded to their survey and were employed full-time,
39.1% indicated they worked in academic settings and 54.9%
were employed in industry, including private organiza-
tions (15.1%), public organizations (7.1%), and consulting
(32.7%). Six percent responded that they worked in other set-
tings (e.g., health/clinical). Recently, the SIOP Administra-
tive Office (Lee Hakel, personal communication, August 4,
2000) reported that of the 3,286 SIOP members (89.9% of
total members) providing information about their employers,
36.1% were in academic positions, 17.1% held full-time posi-
tions in private organizations, 6.3% were in public organiza-
tions, 34.3% were in consulting, and 5.9% worked for health
care or other employers (e.g., research organizations). Two
notable shifts between 1990 and 2000 can be observed: (a) a
decrease in the relative percentage of individuals employed in
private organizations, and (b) an increase in the relative per-
centage of individuals working in external consulting. One
possible explanation is the outsourcing of work and down-
sizing of private organizations (O’Connor & Ryan, 1996).
Eminent I-O psychologists recently expressed concerns about
the multitude of inexperienced consultants (C. H. Lawshe Jr.,
personal communication, June 1, 2000; Locke, 2000).
A prodigious number of employment opportunities in
I-O psychology are apparent from examining the SIOP-
APA Division 14 membership. This data, however, may
underestimate the actual number of individuals and positions
because many I-O psychologists, especially practitioners, do
not join APA or SIOP (Finch & Odoroff, 1939; Katzell &
Austin, 1992). A perusal of the job openings on the SIOP Web
site and published in The Industrial-Organizational Psychol-
ogist (TIP)reveals a plethora of options, especially in the
past decade. London and Moses (1990) observed that the role
of I-O psychologists has evolved from that of technician-
analyst to change agent or strategist.Organized Industrial-Organizational PsychologyAs applied psychology expanded and the demand for applied
psychologists increased, interest in professional organiza-
tions flourished. Early organizations for I-O psychologists
and their dates of formation can be found in Katzell and
Austin (1992). Benjamin (1997) traced the development of
professional groups for I-O psychologists, with specific atten-
tion to the evolution of SIOP. AAAP Section D: Industrial and
Business was the professional organization for psychologists
in industry during the early years. In 1945, the AAAP merged
with APA, and Division 14, Industrial and Business, was
formed with 130 members (fellows and associates). In 1985,
shortly after SIOP incorporated in 1982 to achieve some in-
dependence from APA (Hakel, 1979), there were 2,499 mem-
bers (fellows, members, and associates). When this chapter
was written, there were 3,655 professional members (fellows,
members, and associates) (Lee Hakel, personal communica-
tion, August 4, 2000). The overall purpose of the current soci-
ety is not significantly different from the purpose established
by the AAAP Section D in 1937; clear linkages between
SIOP’s and AAAP’s objectives are obvious. The society
changed with regard to structure, membership, and activities,
primarily because of the expansion of the discipline and the
growth of membership (Benjamin, 1997). For example, the
organization evolved from one that was totally managed by
volunteers to one now staffed professionally (Koppes, 2000).SummaryI-O psychology shifted from a simple, narrowly defined tech-
nical field focused on individual issues for accomplishing
organizational objectives to a complex, broad scientific and ap-
plied discipline emphasizing individual and organizational is-
sues for achieving both individual and organizational goals. A
challenge of the discipline is to maintain an identity as a rigor-
ous scientific discipline while at the same time providing a
growing range of professional services and applications.
A science–practice dichotomy has characterized the disci-
pline since its inception. The roots of this dichotomy can be