414 School Psychology
semester hours, while doctoral programs typically require 100
or more. Both degrees require the equivalent of at least one
school year of supervised internship (a minimum of 1,200 hours
at the nondoctoral level and 1,500 hours at the doctoral level).
School psychologists are granted practice credentials (cer-
tificates or licenses) by each state’s department of education
(SDE) and/or by a separate state board of examiners in psy-
chology (SBEP). The SDE credentials school psychologists
for practice in the settings under its jurisdiction, typically all
public schools but also possibly private schools, correctional
schools, and residential schools. The SBEP credentials prac-
titioners, often referred to as health service providers, for
practice in settings under its jurisdiction, typically all non-
school settings within the state (e.g., mental health centers,
hospitals, independent private practice). In some states the
jurisdictional authority is less distinct.
Employment Characteristics and Services
School psychologists work predominately in school settings
(at least 80%), under 9- or 10-month contracts (180–200 days).
In 1999, their average salary was $49,000 per year. As school
district employees, most are subject to the district’s conditions
and receive benefits and retirement packages similar to those
of other district employees. Other school psychologists work
in a variety of nonschool settings. Among them, 3% to 5%
work full-time in private practice, and 3% to 4% in colleges or
universities.
The referrals most commonly made to school psycholo-
gists come from children in the elementary school grades and
are more often males than females. The referrals are associated
with learning and behavioral difficulties that teachers and/or
parents often suspect are related to one or more categories of
disability within the regulations of the state education agency.
Surveys of practitioners have consistently revealed that they
spend at least 50% of their time in psychoeducational assess-
ment activities related to special education referrals, per-
haps 40% of their time in consultation and direct intervention
activities, and the remaining 10% in research and evaluation,
in-service instruction, and administrative duties.
Historical Periods Defined
Although derived from similar origins and early develop-
ments, contemporary school psychology is a specialty dis-
tinct from clinical, counseling, and educational psychology.
The historical development of school psychology has been
described as consisting of two broad periods, the Hybrid
Years (1890–1969) and the Thoroughbred Years (1970–
present) (Fagan & Wise, 2000). During the Hybrid Years,
school psychology was often a blend of educational and psy-
chological practice; its dominant role was assessment to meet
public education’s need for diagnoses for special class place-
ment. Even in the latter decades of this period, school psy-
chology was a mix of practitioners trained and certified in
various fields (e.g., clinical psychology, teacher education,
and guidance counseling) as well as many whose training and
experience were specifically in school psychology.
The Thoroughbred Years period differs from the previous
period because of the rapid growth in the number of training
programs, practitioners, and state and national associations,
the expansion of literature, and increasing professional regu-
lation from forces within and outside of the field. Collectively,
these changes contributed to a stable professional entity
known as school psychology. Since 1970, school psychol-
ogists have been more consistently employed in positions
titled “school psychologist”; they work in states offering
school psychology credentials to those who have completed
training programs specifically in school psychology and
accredited as such and whose trainers have been school psy-
chologists. This greater uniformity has been modal in the
Thoroughbred Years, although it could be observed in more
advanced locales in the latter Hybrid Years, especially in
urban and suburban areas (Mullen, 1967). The Thorough-
bred period was not achieved simply because of an identity
made possible by more purely bred school psychologists.
The Hybrid Years had many persons who championed
the cause and identity of school psychology despite their
own backgrounds in clinical and educational psychology,
teacher education, and guidance counseling. Among the nota-
bles were Harry Baker, Jack Bardon, Ethel Cornell, Susan
Gray, Leta Hollingworth, Bertha Luckey, Grace Munson,
Frances Mullen, T. E. Newland, Marie Skodak, and Percival
Symonds.THE HYBRID YEARSThe practice of school psychology did not start abruptly.
Several factors contributed to the circumstances under which
psychological services to schools emerged.Factors Contributing to the Origins of PracticeEra of ReformSeveral factors led to the origin of school psychology as a
distinct discipline. Paramount among these was a post–Civil
War era of reform marked by the rise of juvenile courts, the
enactment of child labor laws, the growth of institutions