psychology_Sons_(2003)

418 School Psychology

degrees under Hall at Clark University contributed to the
knowledge of some who practiced in school settings, but this
was not a “school psychology” program. Practical experi-
ences were often available beyond the training programs in
local clinics or institutions. The first formal internship appears
to have been available as early as 1908 at the Vineland Train-
ing School in New Jersey (Morrow, 1946). Also absent were
avenues for the formal granting of credentials to psycholo-
gists in school or other settings.

Literary Development

The availability of professional literature is among the few
symbols of professionalization observable in this period,
though no journals or books appear to have existed specifi-
cally for school psychologists. To the extent practitioners
sought professional information, they would have read the
available psychology journals (e.g.,American Journal of
Psychology, Pedagogical Seminary, Psychological Bulletin)
and education journals (e.g.,School and Society, Journal of
Educational Psychology). Perhaps the most relevant journal
wasThe Psychological Clinic,founded by Witmer in 1907.

Early Practice

This period lacked much theoretical development or a knowl-
edge base for the diagnosis and treatment of children’s dis-
orders. Practitioners were operating largely from their own
experience or that of mentors and used available laboratory
and psychoeducational tests, including anthropometric mea-
surements. Practice was oriented primarily toward observa-
tion and assessment of the child (e.g., a medical model) with
consideration given to some extent to school-based and fam-
ily influences. The dominant role of the school psychologist
was assessment, with lesser emphasis on remediation or ther-
apy and consultation. Research and evaluation, administra-
tion, and in-service education activities were also performed
to some degree.
School psychologists were a mix of persons trained in
psychology, teacher education, and related fields. They were
hired by school boards to administer the newly developed
Binet and other tests primarily to sort children into differ-
ent educational programs and to foster the development of
special education. Overall, the period 1890–1920 provided
a prototype from which a more identifiable school psychol-
ogy specialty would emerge. For all practical purposes,
professional development in school psychology was meager
throughout this period. Training, credentialing, literature,
organizational development, and practice identity would
advance considerably in the following decades.

Emergence of School Psychology as a

Distinct Field (1920–1940)

The factors specific to school psychology’s origins expanded

during this period, and discernible trends for the future were

established. Despite the financial woes of education during

the Great Depression, employment opportunities for psychol-

ogists in schools expanded during this period. Although orga-

nizational representation continued to be unclear, school

psychology literature contributed to the discipline’s identity.

Training opportunities and the emergence of specific creden-

tials followed upon the growth of employment and special

educational programs.

Organizational Development

Psychologists in New York State formed the New York Asso-

ciation of Consulting Psychologists in 1921. Interest in this

group spread to other states, and in 1930 it was renamed the

Association of Consulting Psychologists (ACP). In addition

to several state affiliate groups, the ACP published a newslet-

ter and, in 1937, founded theJournal of Consulting Psychol-

ogy(now theJournal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology).

In 1937, the ACP merged with the Clinical Section of the APA

to form the American Association of Applied Psychologists

(AAAP), which had specific sections for business and indus-

try, clinical, consulting, and educational psychology (English,

1938). Psychologists practicing in school settings belonged to

the clinical and/or educational sections. The dual representa-

tion reflected the origins of the field and its growing identity

as a blend of both educational and clinical psychology. As yet,

however, there was no clear identity for school psychologists

in any national organization, and it is likely that most school

psychological practitioners still did not belong to a national

group. Even by 1940, there were no state-level organizations

specifically for school psychologists, although many practi-

tioners probably belonged to state affiliates of the AAAP (e.g.,

the Ohio Association of Applied Psychologists). Local psy-

chology groups existed in some large cities as well.

Literary Development

With few exceptions, literature related to school psychology

remained similar to that of the previous period. There were

still no journals specifically about school psychology, and

practitioners continued to read education and psychology

journals. The addition of the AAAP’s Journal of Consulting

Psychologyprovided a more specific focus, however. It was

also during this period that the first text about school psy-

chology was published, Psychological Service for School