510 International Psychology
There are diverse approaches to reviewing the history of
international psychology, ranging from theoretical concepts
proposed by “Great Men” and “Great Women” to an analysis
of the “Zeitgeist” in different countries or regions (e.g.,
Gilgen & Gilgen, 1987; Hilgard, Leary, & McGuire, 1991;
Pawlik & Rosenzweig, 1994; Pawlik & d’Ydewalle, 1996;
Rosenzweig, 1992; Sexton & Hogan, 1992). The only histor-
ical overviews located in the literature are those prepared on
behalf of international organizations (e.g., Cautley, 1992;
Jing, 2000; Merenda, 1995; Rosenzweig, Holtzman,
Sabourin, & Bolanger, 2000; Wilpert, 2000).
In writing this chapter, we recall Watson’s (1960) com-
ment that “it would be a serious mistake to consider the his-
tory of psychology to be limited to a mere chronology of
events or biographical chitchat” (p. 254). This is particularly
true for international psychology. In our view, psychological
contributions are embedded in the social context from which
they emerge, seen within the perspective of personal and
national values. Within that context, ours is but a first at-
tempt to record some aspects of the history of “international
psychology.”
ROOTS
The introduction of scientific psychology as we know it is a
comparatively recent phenomenon, traditionally dating to
1879 when Wundt established his laboratory in Leipzig and
attracted students from all parts of the world. On their return
home, Wundt’s disciples established the first psychological
laboratory in their country, directed the first institute of psy-
chology, and founded one or more journals of psychology
(Ardila, 1982a).
It was not until 1889 that the first International Congress
of Physiological Psychology was convened in Paris. The
closing banquet was held in the just-completed Eiffel Tower.
Most congress participants were officially identified with
philosophy, medicine, or one of the traditional sciences. Few
scientists at that time claimed the title of “psychologist”
(MacLeod, 1957).
Historically, internationalism in psychology probably
began with the arrival of the first non-Greek visitors to the
Academy of Athens, established by Plato in 387B.C.E. While
he would not have called it psychology, Plato’s speculations
often focused on human behavior. When Aristotle wroteDe
Animain 330B.C.E., Greek philosophy was replete with valu-
able psychological intuitions on the nature of communication,
leadership, and social conditions affecting self-esteem. Many
psychological terms, concepts, and theories have their roots in
the thoughts of Hellenic philosophers (Georgas, 1994).
The pedigree of psychology probably reaches further back
in time to the civilizations of ancient China, India, and the
Arab world. The writings of Confucius (500 B.C.E.) contain a
wealth of psychological thought. The goodness and evil of
human nature and the essence of the human spirit were dis-
cussed in relation to ethical, political, and educational theo-
ries (Ching, 1980).
In India, the roots of psychology can be traced to the vast
storehouse of ancient philosophical and religious texts as
well as folklore (Sinha, 1986). During a period of several
centuriesB.C.E., the search for an understanding of human be-
havior led to the development of a psychological system of
nature quite different from that of the Greco-Roman renais-
sance (Murphy & Kovach, 1972).
In the Arab world, philosophers inherited Greek philo-
sophical speculations and mixed them with their religious
and moral traditions. Islamic thinkers made major contribu-
tions in the Middle Ages, including recognition of the innate
psychological foundations of social life, factors affecting
group cohesion, the psychology of different cultures, and the
relationship between personality characteristics and voca-
tional success (Ahmed, 1992, 1997; Soueif, 1963).
The medieval period was followed by a revival of learning
(Watson, 1960). In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a re-
birth of Greek, particularly Aristotelian, ways of thinking, led
to empirical, especially experimental, ways of approaching
nature. “Out of the work of Renaissance man comes what we
know about the origins of our present knowledge” (Watson,
1960, p. 254).THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGYInternational communication among psychologists has
been important to the development of modern psychology.
Communication has flourished through world congresses,
scholarly exchanges, and perhaps most importantly the es-
tablishment of ongoing international organizations. While
the chapter by Raymond Fowler and Wade Pickren (Chapter
26) details this development, it is important to highlight
here three major international organizations that have
played key roles. The oldest international organization of
psychologists is the International Association of Applied
Psychology (IAAP). The IAAP was founded in 1920 at the
first International Congress of Applied Psychology, con-
vened by E. Claparède in Geneva. The International Coun-
cil of Psychologists (ICP) traces its roots to the National
Council of Women Psychologists, established in New York
City in 1941 by a group of U.S. women psychologists who