512 International Psychology
Germany awaited a change in generations curious to learn
what had developed elsewhere. Gifts of textbooks, back
issues of scientific journals, and travel grants helped to over-
come the isolation imposed during the Nazi period.
As Jing (2000) observed, “Because of the questionable
applicability of Euro-American psychological theories to the
third world countries, a revolt is underway to build an indige-
nous psychology in the study of a society’s own problems by
native psychologists who are familiar with the cultural envi-
ronment and using methods suitable to the solution of these
problems” (p. 579).
As noted by Poortinga (1997), there is also a need to
demonstrate “the universal roots of human psychological
functioning underneath the rich and varied cultural variations
in behavior.” In his view, culture-comparative research is
based on the assumption of the universality of psychologi-
cal process and mechanisms shared by all human beings. Dif-
ferences in behavior are explained in terms of antecedent
conditions, of an ecological, economic, sociocultural, or his-
torical nature. Poortinga holds that criticisms raised by
schools of cultural psychology “strike at Achilles’ heels” of
cross-cultural research, “but that weaknesses are circumstan-
tial rather than essential.”
THE 1913 CONGRESS THAT WASN’T
The history of science is generally viewed in terms of theo-
ries proposed and experiments performed. It is not always
recognized that science is also a conglomeration of people
who have their own agendas, piques, jealousies, or political
idiosyncrasies. Based on access to the correspondence and
files of major figures in American psychology, Evans and
Scott (1978) relate how the idea for holding the 1913 Inter-
national Congress of Psychology in the United States was
floated during the 1905 congress in Rome and accepted at the
1909 congress in Geneva. A petition had been prepared by
Morton Prince (Harvard), which named James Mark Baldwin
(Johns Hopkins) as congress president and William James
(Harvard) as honorary president. However, the petition was
not a formal invitation, and no U.S. institution offered to host
the congress. Personal rivalries prevented effective organiza-
tion. The project was finally abandoned in 1912 with no other
country expressing willingness to assume responsibility at
such a late date. Because of World War I, no congresses were
convened between 1914 and 1923, when the International
Congress met in Oxford. It was not until 1929 that the United
States played host at Yale University in New Haven. As noted
by Rosenzweig et al. (2000), it was ironic that Cattell, who
had been embroiled in the rivalries swirling around the
ill-fated 1913 congress, having outlived his rivals, was
elected president of the 1929 congress and gave one of the
major lectures.THE U.S. CONGRESS THAT WAS HELD IN CANADAOne of the main purposes of international congresses is to
encourage scientists and practitioners from diverse countries
to meet in an atmosphere of friendly relaxation. With rising in-
ternational tensions and growing ideological conflict in the
post–World War II years, it was inevitable that these factors
would affect international relations in psychology. North
American psychologists remember with embarrassment the
domestic political circumstances of the McCarthy era, which
made it impractical to hold the 1954 International Congress in
the United States as originally planned. The Canadian Psy-
chological Association came to the rescue with an offer to hold
the congress in Montreal, organizing it jointly with the APA.
To cope with anticipated financial problems, the Congress
Planning Committee created a category of honorary member-
ship of $15 for those psychologists who wished to contribute
despite their inability to attend. The names of the honorary
members were listed in the proceedings. Disappointment at
the small attendance was offset by the feeling of intimacy that
developed and by the general atmosphere of relaxation
(MacLeod, 1957). Conceived during the congress was the first
major volume to be published under the auspices of the Inter-
national Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS), with 22
contributors from nine countries. All royalties were allocated
to the union to aid in the development of further international
contacts and cooperation (David & von Bracken, 1957).YOUNG PSYCHOLOGISTS INITIATIVETo encourage participation by younger colleagues, the steer-
ing committee for the 1963 International Congress in
Washington, DC, developed a Young Psychologists Program.
It was oriented to persons under age 30 who had received
their highest degree in psychology within the previous 5
years. Funds were raised from individual psychologists and
from regional and state associations to support 22 young col-
leagues, one from nearly each of the union’s member soci-
eties. The Canadian Psychological Association supported one
of their own. Psychologists residing in the Washington area
generously provided lodging in their homes, logistical assis-
tance, and a chance to become acquainted with the city.