National Psychological Associations 541The divisional structure of the APA that grew out of the re-
organization plan during World War II facilitated the growth
of psychology and represented the increasing diversity of
American psychology (Benjamin, 1997b; Dewsbury, 1997).
Nineteen divisions were approved in 1944; five of them were
sections from the American Association of Applied Psychol-
ogy (AAAP), which had emerged in 1937 as the chief rival to
the APA. The two most popular divisions reflected the prac-
tice and application emphasis of the AAAP: clinical and per-
sonnel (Benjamin, 1997b). However, the number of divisions
was almost immediately reduced to 17 when the Psychomet-
ric Society (Division 4) decided not to join and Division 11,
Abnormal Psychology and Psychotherapy, merged with
Division 12, Clinical Psychology. By 1960, there were 20 di-
visions. From 1960 to 2001, 32 more divisions were formed
to bring the total to 52. Most of the growth of divisions oc-
curred in areas of psychological practice and reflected partic-
ular practice focuses, for example, Division 50, Addictions.
Until the 1990s, divisions oriented to psychological science
also experienced membership increases. However, by the end
of the twentieth century, membership in some science divi-
sions was decreasing.
The events that led to the founding of the Canadian Psy-
chological Association (CPA) began in the Spring of 1938
with the distribution of a questionnaire to Canadian psychol-
ogists seeking to determine their interest in a national organi-
zation. During a meeting held in June 1938 a motion was
approved to form a Canadian association. A group was
formed in 1939 to draft a constitution for the new society.
The constitution was ratified in December 1940 and the CPA
was incorporated in 1950 (Dzinas, 2000).
Like its neighbor the APA, the CPA was organized
over the twentieth century into divisions, with a total of
23 sections in 2000. The CPA at the end of the century pub-
lished three journals and a newsletter.
The Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues
Several of the APA divisions began as independent organiza-
tions and later joined the APA. While all of those organiza-
tions have an interesting history, we focus here on two: the
Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI),
which is APA’s Division 9, and the Psychology-Law Society,
APA’s Division 41.
A group of young psychologists led by Ross Stagner
and Isadore Krechevsky (who later changed his name to
David Krech) circulated a petition in 1935 that called on
the APA to become involved in the pressing social issues
of the day. Specifically, this group wanted the APA to address
the problems of unemployment among (especially young)
psychologists, to work for the inclusion of mental health ser-
vices in federal programs, and to speak out against fascism.
The leadership of the APA at the time was chiefly focused on
maintaining a public image of psychology as a natural sci-
ence and declined to act on the issues presented them. A year
later, at the APA meeting at Dartmouth College, Krech and
Stagner held a public meeting at which the SPSSI was
formed. The prominent psychologist Goodwin Watson was
named as the first president. The SPSSI sought affiliate sta-
tus with the APA, which was granted the following year
(Finison, 1986; Stagner, 1986).
When the APA was reorganized during World War II, the
SPSSI joined as Division 9. However, the SPSSI has remained
an independently incorporated organization. While all Divi-
sion 9 members must also be SPSSI members, not all SPSSI
members are Division 9 members. The number of psycholo-
gists who are members of SPSSI has fluctuated over the years,
from a high of 80% in 1980 to its current low of approximately
55% (Kimmel, 1997). The SPSSI experienced fairly consis-
tent growth in its membership over the years, with a high of
2,832 in 1985. However, the SPSSI experienced a decline in
members in the second half of the 1990s.
The focus of the division since its inception has been on
social issues. One prominent member described the interests
of SPSSI members as the “three Ps: prejudice, poverty, and
peace” (cited in Kimmel, 1997, p. 17). Labor issues served as
an initial focus in the late 1930s as the United States faced se-
vere economic hardship. The SPSSI worked to gain greater
employment for psychologists and to understand and reduce
labor conflict. SPSSI members, led by Otto Klineberg and
Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark, played a crucial role in the
U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education
in 1954. The research of Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps
Clark was critical in the Supreme Court decision to end race-
based school segregation (Jackson, 2000; Phillips, 2000).
The SPSSI has worked in support of cases of academic
freedom, early and notably in the case of the University of
California, Berkeley, professors who were fired for refusing
to sign a loyalty oath during the McCarthy “Red Hunt” era.
The SPSSI has also worked on social issues such as civil
rights, population control, antiwar activities, and the role of
science in the formation of public policy.American Psychology-Law SocietyTwo young psychologists attended the 1968 APA Convention
focused on finding other psychologists who were interested
in forming an association devoted to the issues at the inter-
face of psychology and law. Eric Dreikurs and Jay Ziskin
were not acquainted prior to the meeting but quickly found