National Psychological Associations 545Associates could not vote or hold office in the APA. Many of
the associates were psychologists interested in application
and the practice of psychology.
One new organization that formed in this era (1921), the
New York State Association of Consulting Psychologists, be-
came the leading state association for applied work in psy-
chology and was emulated by other state and regional groups.
The New York group joined with other regional groups and
reformed as the Association of Consulting Psychologists
(ACP) in 1930. The ACP promoted professional issues such
as training and licensing for all applied psychologists. In
1937, the ACP merged with other applied groups to form the
American Association for Applied Psychology (AAAP),
which, like the ACP, was concerned with issues relevant to
professional practice. The AAAP was able to develop a na-
tional voice for professional psychology before the onset of
the Second World War, though its voice was somewhat muted
by the dominance of academic psychologists and the lack of
proportionate representation of women among its leadership
(Benjamin, 1997a; Capshew, 1999).
TheJournal of Consulting Psychologywas the official
publication of the AAAP and reported on both research
and practice issues of professional psychology. The issue of
appropriate training for the practice of psychology, in all
fields but particularly in clinical psychology, was frequently
discussed in the pages of the journal and at the annual meet-
ings of the association. It was not directly addressed until
after World War II, when the scientist-practitioner (Boulder)
model developed by AAAP member David Shakow became
the primary model of acceptable training.
In a few short years, the AAAP made substantive progress
on behalf of its members. When the APA was reorganized
during the Second World War, the AAAP was incorporated
into the APA as part of the effort to make the APA more in-
clusive and responsive to both scientific and professional
concerns (Capshew & Hilgard, 1992). Section D, Industrial
and Business, of the AAAP became APA Division 14, Indus-
trial and Business Psychology. The new division sought to
ensure that appropriate standards of training and practice
were maintained and that industrial psychology remained on
a solid research basis.
Division 14 members decided to incorporate as a separate
society, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psy-
chology (SIOP), in 1982. This was the result, in part, of
dissatisfaction with what was perceived as APA’s overem-
phasis on practice issues at the expense of science. When the
APS formed in 1988, SIOP membership was opened to APS
members as well as APA members. Despite these changes, it
is clear that SIOP is the historical successor to the AAAP
(Benjamin, 1997a).
During the 1930s, several states began certification
programs for school psychologists (Fagan, Hensley, &
Delugach, 1986; French, 1984). A number of those psycholo-
gists belonged to the ACP and then the AAAP. One of the
charter divisions of the reorganized APA was Division 16,
School Psychology. However, many school psychologists did
not qualify for membership in Division 16 because they did
not have a doctoral degree. Historically, school psychology
has been dominated by nondoctoral professionals (Fagan,
1996). Growth of Division 16 membership was steady but
slow, even though the number of school psychologists was
expanding rapidly. By the 1960s, it became clear that Divi-
sion 16 was not responding adequately to the needs of
nondoctoral school psychologists. As a result, a need for a na-
tional organization that could represent all school psycholo-
gists led to the founding of the National Association of
School Psychologists (NASP) in 1969 (Fagan, 1996).
Membership rose steadily from the founding of the NASP
and stood at 21,000 plus in 2000. The association devel-
oped an impressive track record of working to raise educa-
tional and training standards. Accreditation of training
programs became an important part of the NASP’s work as
well (Fagan, Gorin, & Tharinger, 2000).
Applied psychological organizations proliferated in the
last decades of the twentieth century. Space does not allow
for all of them to be described. A few chosen to serve as ex-
amples include the American Association of Correctional
Psychologists (founded 1953), the International Society of
Sport Psychology (founded 1965), the Association for the Ad-
vancement of Behavior Therapy (founded 1966), the Associa-
tion for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (founded
1969), and the Society of Psychologists in Management
(founded 1984). Hundreds of other applied psychological or-
ganizations had been established in the United States alone by
the end of the twentieth century (see VandenBos, 1989).Psychological Organizations in the Public InterestThe 1960s were a time of social upheaval and dissent in the
United States and much of Europe. During this period, psy-
chological organizations were formed to represent groups
that had been traditionally ignored or underrepresented in
mainstream psychological organizations. In the United
States, these new organizations were typically formed as a re-
sponse to perceived problems with the APA. The APA was
perceived as insensitive to the needs and interests of women
psychologists and psychologists of color.
The Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi) was
founded in 1968 at the annual convention of the APA. It was
not the first organization of African American psychologists. In