Problems of Government 131and economic entities within the state, even sometimes in
conflict with the state, are seen as the means to progress,
creativity, and freedom. Conflict, or at least friction, is seen as
necessary to stimulate a society and the forces within that society
to a progress that only competition can inspire.
From about the 4th to the 15 th century there developed a
moderate experiment in pluralism based upon the Christian
concept of dualism. From the beginning of Christianity when
Christ said, “Render unto Caesar that which is Caesar’s, and
render unto God that which is God’s,” to the contention of St.
Augustine about the two cities, “The City of God and the City of
Man,” the concept of dualism, as it relates to church and state,
predominated.
During the 15 th century the concept of monism regained
prominence when the Pope rejected dualism and claimed the
unity of church and state, with the church dominant. As prob
lems within the church began to weaken the political power of
the Pope, and the temporal power of European king’s began to
grow, the failure of dualism seemed apparent. With the appear
ance of Thomas Hobbes and his theory of absolute monarchy,
monism was reinstituted, albeit on a basis other than family or
religion.
In 1776, the concept of laissez-faire economics was intro
duced forcefully by Adam Smith, and the resurgence of plural
ism began. Beyond the economic justification by Smith for
pluralism, there appeared ethical and political theorists such as
Thomas Jefferson, who justified pluralism on all three premises
(economic, political, and religious). Pluralism dominated the
world scene until 1914.
From 1914 to the present monism and pluralism have been, as
Lipson says, “in conflict and crisis.” The obvious monistic
system which has dominated the twentieth century is the Soviet
Union. Based on a Marxian economic premise, the Soviets were
perhaps the best example of a monistic system. Recent events
demonstrate a forceful movement toward pluralism within that
society. Perhaps the most obvious example of pluralism existing
today is the United States. Mr. Jefferson’s principles seem to
have taken hold and dominate American’s thinking. This is not
to deny that there are critics who think America is pluralism run
amuck, and a reaction may drive the United States into monism.