Chapter 6, page 109
words over and over. A belief that rote memory is effective tends to impede learning (Chan & Sachs,
2001) as students fail to use the more active, elaborative strategies that are more conducive to learning,
such as studying vocabulary using the keyword method or by trying to actively use words in meaningful
sentences.
Ability is fixed. Students vary according to whether they believe that ability is fixed or changeable.
Students who believe that ability is fixed believe that their ability is innate and cannot be changed.
Students who believe that ability is changeable believe that they can improve their ability by studying
harder and learning more.
The belief that ability is fixed is a nonavailing belief; the belief that ability is changeable is an
availing belief (Dweck, 2002). To see why, let’s consider two middle school students, Kevin and Jeffrey,
who have different beliefs about writing ability. Kevin thinks that writing ability is fixed and
unchangeable, because it is innate. Kevin may be highly motivated to engage in writing tasks as long as he
is doing well. But if he gets D’s on two consecutive essays that he has written for English class, he may
take this D as evidence that his writing ability is not high. There will be no reason for him to work harder,
as he believes he simply lacks writing ability.
Jeffrey, on the other hand, believes that ability can be changed. For instance, he thinks that if he
doesn’t have the ability to write very well right now, he can learn to write better by learning strategies that
will make him a better writer. If Jeffrey gets two consecutive D’s on essays, he responds by working hard
and seeking help from his teacher, because he believes that he can improve with help and effort. As s
consequence, he strongly improves his writing, and he concludes—appropriately—that he has increased
his writing ability. Thus, a belief in fixed ability impedes learning, whereas a belief in changeable ability
enhances learning.
Conceptions about Knowledge
Students’ conceptions or beliefs about knowledge are also called epistemological conceptions or
beliefs, because epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines knowledge. Philosophers who
specialize in epistemology study issues including what counts as knowledge, how certain knowledge is,
and how we justify saying that “we know” something. Ordinary people’s epistemological beliefs are
people’s beliefs about these same issues. We will discuss several areas of availing and nonavailing
epistemological beliefs below.
Complexity of knowledge. Students who believe that knowledge is complex believe that ideas
learned in school such as molecular theory, economics, historical periods, and calculus are complex bodies
of knowledge. Students who believe that knowledge is simple believe that these ideas are simple and
straightforward--that there are only a few things to learn in order to master these ideas. Researchers have
found that students who report believing that knowledge is complex learn more when they are studying
and write more complex essays than students who think that knowledge is simple (Chinn, in press-c; L.
Mason, 2003). This is because most bodies of knowledge to be learned are indeed relatively complex, and
an expectation that the knowledge will be complex prepares learners to exert the needed effort and use the
cognitive strategies needed to master complex material.
Certainty of knowledge. The certainty of knowledge refers to the extent to which knowledge can
be viewed as true, unconditionally and without any question. Scientists that scientific knowledge is never
certain because we may develop better theories on any topic in the future. On the frontiers of knowledge,
where research is active, knowledge may be highly uncertain. Research on the effects of cholesterol is a
good example. Studies often yield conflicting results, and it can take years to gain a full understanding of
how different kinds of cholesterol affect health.