Bibliography
Gabbard, G. O. Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders, 3rd edition. Wash-
ington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2001.
Bryna Siegel
COMPUTER LITERACY
The term ‘‘computer literacy’’ refers to the ability to
use the tools associated with a personal computer ap-
propriate to one’s age. Because technology is an ever-
evolving field, definitions of computer literacy vary
with time; what was considered literate in the 1980s
became obsolete by the 1990s, and in the future ex-
pectations will change and expand even further. It is
not useful, therefore, to list current tools as defining
computer literacy. Rather, it is generally better to
view computer literacy in terms of the amount of as-
sistance required for use. Young children should be
able to use developmentally appropriate programs
with assistance. Elementary and middle school chil-
dren are expected to be able to operate computers
and applications independently, relying on adults to
help with problem solving. Older adolescents should
be mostly independent in their ability to manipulate
data, applications, and machines.
See also: COMPUTERS; LEARNING
Bibliography
Casey, Jean. Early Literacy: The Empowerment of Technology. Engle-
wood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 2000.
Hoot, James, and Steven Silvern. Writing with Computers in the Early
Grades. New York: Teachers College Press, 1988.
Wepner, Shelley, William Valmont, and Richard Thurlow, eds.
Linking Literacy and Technology: A Guide for K–8 Classrooms.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 2000.
Steven B. Silvern
COMPUTERS
Computers are ubiquitous. As computers have be-
come less expensive they have been purchased by
more and more families for their homes. Because of
this, many children begin to use computers at an early
age. Even if computers are not available in their
home, children almost certainly will begin to come
into contact with computers in school.
Some adults are amazed by how readily young
children use computers. Many children find that
using computers gives them a sense of power and ac-
complishment. And, unlike many adults whose first or
primary contact with computers is work related, most
children first use computers for entertainment pur-
poses and games. This is by no means the only use
that children have for computers. Children also use
computers for accessing information, as well as for
writing stories and research papers.
In addition, children use a variety of learning
programs, which either seek to teach or reinforce
basic skills in math, language, reading, and other sub-
jects. Other software allows children to draw pictures
or create visual works of art and self-expression. Com-
munication with others is growing as an application
of computers by children, particularly as more homes
and schools gain access to the Internet. As computers
continue to become more powerful, increasing num-
bers of children are using computers to create multi-
media presentations and even web sites that include
pictures, text, audio, and even video.
Because computer use is promoted in schools,
and because computers are so ubiquitous, children
have a great deal of exposure to them. Not everyone,
however, is comfortable with the use of computers by
young children. Some, including the Alliance for
Childhood, have called for a halt to the use of com-
puters by young children. Such groups cite the costs
as well as possible health effects that using computers
may have on children. The true impact that early
computer use has on children is uncertain. Even
though there is not enough information to state au-
thoritatively that computers have any negative effects
on children, the possible adverse effects that have
been cited are serious enough to warrant consider-
ation.Possible Negative Effects of Computer
Use
One of the most compelling arguments made
against the use of computers by children is the risk of
repetitive motion injury such as carpal tunnel syn-
drome. This problem may be greater for children
than for adults because their musculature and skeletal
systems are not fully formed and may be at greater
risk for injury. Children’s risk of suffering repetitive
motion injuries may be further increased because
they tend to use computers that are sized for adults,
placed on adult-sized furniture, and positioned for an
adult user.
Another possible risk of using computers is eye-
strain, which may include dryness due to not blinking
enough, headaches, and blurry vision. To reduce this
risk, it is important to limit the time spent staring at
the screen; take frequent breaks, making sure to focus
the eyes on distant objects; and blink frequently. It is
also important to position the monitor sixteen to
twenty-seven inches away and in a way that ensures
that the user views it at a slightly downward angle.
Following some highly publicized events in
Japan, it has been suggested that there may be a risk
of seizure for children playing video games contain-
ing bright flashing lights. Many video games includeCOMPUTERS 95