Investigation reported that 32 percent of female mur-
der victims in 1999 were murdered by a husband or
boyfriend, while 3 percent of male victims were mur-
dered by a wife or girlfriend. In 2001 the U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services estimated that
approximately one-fourth of all hospital emergency
room visits by women resulted from domestic assault.
Although estimates are available as to the inci-
dence of violent crimes occurring between intimate
partners, many consider the figures to underrepre-
sent the actual rates of occurrence. Victims of domes-
tic violence may refrain from reporting abuse for a
variety of reasons including a belief that it is a ‘‘pri-
vate matter,’’ fear of retaliation by the abuser, a desire
to avoid feelings of shame, or a belief that the police
could not effectively intervene. It has been suggested
that individuals at higher socioeconomic status levels
may be especially underrepresented in rates of occur-
rence because they have access to additional resources
and do not need to rely as heavily on assistance from
the police.
Impact on Victims and Children
The impact of domestic violence on victims varies
according to the intensity and the type of violence in-
flicted. Victims may need to seek medical attention
for injuries; may experience psychological problems
such as depression and anxiety; and may even die as
a result of the abuse. The children of victims may also
be negatively affected through exposure to such vio-
lence. Children who witness domestic violence may
experience feelings of depression and anxiety, have
difficulty interacting with other children, and display
increased rates of aggression. Some research suggests
that children exposed to domestic violence may have
an increased risk of becoming a victim or victimizer
in future relationships. Children in violent families
are also at greater risk for being abused themselves.
Nevertheless, even though domestic violence can
have serious consequences on the physical and emo-
tional well-being of children, not all children exposed
to violence will be affected to the same extent. Re-
searchers have been limited in their ability to study
the range of effects on children because the research-
ers often focus their studies on children in shelters,
who may display more severe problems than other
children. Additionally, it is difficult to determine the
number of children who witness violence because the
rates of occurrence available are only estimates that
may underrepresent certain populations.
Causes of Domestic Violence
Not only is it challenging to determine the impact
of violence on children, but determining the cause of
domestic violence is also complex. Nevertheless,
three general approaches attempt to examine possi-
ble reasons for violent behavior between individuals
who are or have been intimately involved.Individual Characteristics
One approach focuses on the characteristics of
the individuals in the relationship. This approach
studies psychological characteristics associated with
the violent individual and the victim. Although one
attribute by itself will not necessarily explain the char-
acteristics of an abuser or a victim, it is thought that
the examination of all attributes combined will help
to predict which individuals may be predisposed to be
violent or to become a victim of violence.
According to the first theoretical approach, char-
acteristics associated with individuals who abuse their
partners include low self-esteem, isolation from social
support, a manipulative nature, and a desire for
power and control (Kakar 1998). These individuals
are likely to be unable to cope with stress, be unwilling
to take responsibility for their own actions, have ex-
treme feelings of jealousy and possessiveness, be over-
ly dependent on the victim, and/or have certain
mental or psychological disorders. Additionally, some
studies have indicated that violent individuals are
more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol. The use of con-
trolled substances, however, has not been shown to
necessarily cause violence.
The characteristics that have been associated with
the victims of violence are used to explain why indi-
viduals would become involved with and/or remain in
a relationship with an abusive person. Attributes asso-
ciated with the victim include low self-esteem; isola-
tion from social support; feelings of shame, guilt, and
self-blame; and mental illness such as depression.
Some researchers suggest that victims experience
feelings of helplessness that prevent them from leav-
ing the relationship. After repeated failures of escape,
victims believe that they cannot escape the relation-
ship and resign themselves to remain in the violent
atmosphere.
Another theory used to explain why victims re-
main in abusive relationships proposes that violence
occurs in a cycle. This theory, first introduced by Len-
ore Walker in 1979, contains three main phases: (1)
tension-building, (2) acute battering incident, and (3)
calm, loving respite. The first phase includes minor
incidents of abuse such as verbal attacks. During this
stage the victim submits to the wishes of the violent
individual in order to appease the attacker. The sec-
ond phase contains more severe abuse and is followed
by the third phase or the ‘‘honeymoon period.’’ In the
last phase, the abuser becomes loving and attentive
and apologizes profusely for the attack. The victimDOMESTIC VIOLENCE 125