Child Development

Policy Analysis Archives [web site]. Available from http://
epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v7n8/; INTERNET.
Russo, Charles, and William Gordon. ‘‘Home Schooling: The
In-House Alternative.’’ School Business Affairs (December
1996):16–20.
Jason D. Rehfeldt

HOMELESS CHILDREN

Children who do not have a consistent, adequate
nighttime residence are considered to be homeless.
There are as many as 250,000 homeless children
(birth to sixteen years of age) in the United States, in-
cluding children who are living in shelters or ‘‘dou-
bled up’’ with friends and relatives. Common causes
of homelessness for families with children include
poverty, lack of affordable housing, and domestic vio-
lence. The lack of a stable place to live can have severe
effects: Compared to housed children, homeless chil-
dren are more likely to experience poor health, de-
velopmental delays, behavioral and mental health
problems, and low educational achievement. Al-
though the Education of Homeless Children and
Youth Program established by Congress in 1987 has
dramatically improved school attendance by home-
less children, their families still frequently face barri-
ers to receiving needed services because of their lack
of a permanent address.

See also: LATCHKEY CHILDREN; RESILIENCY

Bibliography
Shinn, Marybeth, and Beth Weitzman. ‘‘Homeless Families Are
Different.’’ In J. Baumohl ed., Homelessness in America. Wash-
ington, DC: National Coalition for the Homeless, 1996.
Theresa Lawton Hawley

HOMEWORK

Homework is a tool for reinforcing and expanding on
concepts introduced in the classroom. It can help fos-
ter independence, self-discipline, and a love of learn-
ing in younger children and can improve an older
child’s performance on standardized tests. Critics of
homework say that it overburdens children and can
adversely affect a child’s development by cutting in on
leisure time and creating tension in the home. In ad-
dition, some children may be at a disadvantage if
their parents are ill prepared to assist with homework
because of their work schedules or their inability to
comprehend the subject matter. Some education ex-
perts have also pointed out that studies have never
conclusively proven that homework improves overall
academic performance among grade-school children.

Despite these criticisms, many believe that home-
work has a place in a child’s education. Homework is

most effective when assignments are meaningful,

have a clear purpose and instructions, and are well

matched to a student’s abilities.

See also: HOME SCHOOLING

Bibliography

‘‘Helping with Homework: A Parent’s Guide to Information Prob-

lem-Solving.’’ ERIC Digest (November 1996).

Kralovec, Etta, and John Buell. The End of Homework. Boston: Bea-

con Press, 2000.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

‘‘How Do Children Spend Their Time? Children’s Activities,

School Achievement, and Well-Being.’’ Research on Today’s Is-

sues 11 (August 2000).

Patricia Ohlenroth

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

The Human Genome Project began in earnest in

1990 as an international, publicly funded effort to de-

termine the sequence of the three billion base pairs

of human DNA. The major goals of the project are to

identify and functionally characterize the estimated

30,000 to 40,000 genes in human genome and to ad-

dress the ethical, legal, and social issues that will arise

from the use of the project’s results in medical prac-

tice. The initial sequencing phase of the project was

complete in 2000. Biomedical researchers are build-

ing upon the knowledge, resources, and technologies

emanating from the Human Genome Project by iden-

tifying specific genotypes that contribute to human

health and disease phenotypes. The ultimate goal is

to use this information to develop new ways to treat,

cure, or even prevent diseases that afflict humankind.

The identification of genes and genotypes that cause

birth defects and other diseases is being made possi-

ble by the project. The introduction of this informa-

tion into medical practice, in particular through

genetic counseling, will have a major impact on im-

proving child health and development by providing

more accurate diagnostic tests for disease carriers and

prenatal testing for birth defects.

See also: GENETIC COUNSELING; GENOTYPE;

PHENOTYPE

Bibliography

Department of Energy. ‘‘Human Genome Research.’’ Available

from http://www.er.doe.gov/production/ober/hug_top.html;

INTERNET.

National Human Genome Research Institute. ‘‘The Human Ge-

nome Project.’’ Available from http://www.nhgri.nih.gov/

HGP/; INTERNET.

David W. Threadgill

Robert E. Boykin

194 HOMELESS CHILDREN