Child Development

child’s adjustment. The interactions between de-
pressed mothers and their infants are characterized
by less positive and more negative emotions, less in-
fant vocalization, and more passivity on the part of
the infant.

Summary

A large body of literature and theory converges
on the notion that it is the relationship between the
parent and child that is critical for the positive devel-
opment of children. Specifically, a common theme
during childhood is that the way in which parents are
able to sensitively regulate their parenting behavior
based on the developmental needs of their children
is a critical determinant of positive outcome. Addi-
tionally, the context in which the parent-child rela-
tionship occurs is important in affecting the qualities
of that relationship.

See also: ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR; BIRTH ORDER AND
SPACING; FATHERS; PARENTING

Bibliography
Bornstein, Marc, ed. ‘‘Parenting Infants.’’ Handbook of Parenting,
Vol. 1: Children and Parenting. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erl-
baum, 1995.
Collins, W. Andrew, and Brett Laursen. ‘‘Conflict and Relation-
ships during Adolescence.’’ In Carolyn Shantz and Willard
Hartup eds., Conflict in Child and Adolescent Development. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Collins, W. Andrew, Eleanor E. Maccoby, Larry Steinberg, E. Mavis
Hetherington, and Marc Bornstein. ‘‘Contemporary Research
on Parenting: The Case for Nature and Nurture.’’ American
Psychologist 55 (2000):218–232.
Collins, W. Andrew, Michael Harris, and Amy Susman. ‘‘Parenting
during Middle Childhood.’’ In Marc Bornstein ed., Handbook
of Parenting, Vol. 1: Children and Parenting. Mahwah, NJ: Law-
rence Erlbaum, 1995.
Conger, Rand, and Glen Elder. Families in Troubled Times: Adapting
to Change in Rural America. New York: Aldine De Gruyter,
1994.
Harris, Judith R. The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the
Way They Do. New York: Free Press, 1998.
Holmbeck, Grayson, Roberta Paikoff, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn.
‘‘Parenting Adolescents.’’ In Marc Bornstein ed., Handbook of
Parenting, Vol. 1: Children and Parenting. Mahwah, NJ: Law-
rence Erlbaum, 1995.
Maccoby, Eleanor. ‘‘Social-Emotional Development and Response
to Stressors.’’ In Norman Garmezy and Michael Rutter eds.,
Stress, Coping, and Development in Children. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1983.
Maccoby, Eleanor E. ‘‘Parenting and Its Effects on Children: On
Reading and Misreading Behavior Genetics.’’ Annual Review
of Psychology 51 (2000):1–27.
McLoyd, Vonnie C. ‘‘Children in Poverty: Development, Public
Policy, and Practice.’’ In William Damon, Irving Sigel, and K.
Ann Renninger eds., Handbook of Child Psychology. New York:
Wiley, 1998.
Parke, Ross. Fatherhood. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1996.

Patterson, Gerald. Coercive Family Processes. Eugene, OR: Castalia

Press, 1982.

Sanson, Ann, and Mary Rothbart. ‘‘Child Temperament and Par-

enting.’’ In Marc Bornstein ed., Handbook of Parenting, Vol. 4:

Applied and Practical Parenting. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1995.

Sroufe, L. Alan. Emotional Development: The Organization of Emotional

Life in the Early Years. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University

Press, 1995.

Tolan, Patrick, and Rolf Loeber. ‘‘Antisocial Behavior.’’ In Patrick

Tolan and Bertram Cohler eds., Handbook of Clinical Research

and Practice with Adolescents. New York: Wiley, 1993.

Martha J. Cox

PARENTAL LEAVE

Parental leave refers to the time taken off from work

by employees to care for their children. The term is

more inclusive than maternity or paternity leave in

that it covers both mothers and fathers. By allowing

either parent time off from work, employers offer

families more options as to which parent will care for

the child and which one will continue to be the wage

earner.

Prior to August of 1993, employers in the United

States were not required to implement parental leave

policies. And many companies did not recognize that

such flexibility and choice could be given to either

parent of a child. Recognizing the need for a univer-

sal policy, the Clinton/Gore administration intro-

duced the Family and Medical Leave Act in 1993.

Through the provision of this act, most employees are

guaranteed a protected job, with unpaid leave, in the

event that birth and care of a newborn is needed,

adoption or foster care has occurred, or an immediate

family member needs care. While the act gives par-

ents more choices and job security, it does not, man-

date wage replacement during the leave period. As a

result, many parents are reluctant to take the needed

time off for fear of losing income.

In 1999 the Campaign for Family Leave Benefits

was launched. The purpose of this campaign was to

address the growing concern among Americans re-

garding unpaid parental leave in the United States.

The campaign hopes to make family and medical

leave more affordable for working parents in America

through research, a clearinghouse, advocacy, public

education, a family leave benefits network, and an ad-

visory committee.

See also: SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES; WORKING

FAMILIES

Bibliography

‘‘Campaign for Family Leave Benefits.’’ In the National Partner-

ship for Women and Families [web site]. 1998. Available from

http://www.nationalparternship.org/workandfamily/fmleave/

expansion/fli_launchmain.htm; INTERNET.

294 PARENTAL LEAVE