Child Development

produce a large amount of antibodies, but the risk in-
creases with each pregnancy. In the past, erythroblas-
tosis was always fatal, but now medical techniques can
minimize the harmful effects of Rh incompatibility.
After the birth of an Rh-positive child, the Rh-
negative mother can be given an injection of the drug
Rhogam to reduce the buildup of antibodies in her
blood. If this is not done, future Rh-positive children
will be endangered by the high antibody level. A doc-
tor who suspects an Rh incompatibility between
mother and fetus can measure her antibody level and
induce labor if the antibody count becomes too high.
Immediate and complete blood transfusions to the
newborn infant can then eliminate the mother’s anti-
bodies from its blood. If the fetus is not yet mature
enough to survive after birth, a blood transfusion may
be possible in utero.

Stress
If a mother is extremely anxious (about her preg-
nancy, her abilities as a mother, or any other prob-
lems in her life), the unborn child may be affected.
Although the baby’s nervous system is separate from
the mother’s, strong emotions in the mother such as
rage, fear, and anxiety cause a great increase of hor-
mones and other chemicals in her bloodstream.
These substances pass through the placenta wall, and
it is believed that they can reproduce the mother’s
physiological state in the fetus.

Exercise
The benefits of exercise are unquestioned. Peo-
ple who regularly exercise live longer for a variety of
reasons. Their circulatory and respiratory systems get
exercise and function more efficiently. Exercise tends
to increase energy, make sex more enjoyable, de-
crease depression, increase self-confidence, and sup-
press appetite, which helps maintain an ideal weight-
to-height ratio. There is also a social component to
exercise (getting out of the house, being with other
adults) that provides an incentive to continue. When
the human body is in better condition, it can better
fight off diseases, and when struck with illness, it re-
acts in a more positive fashion.

One longitudinal study examined the relation-
ship between exercise and pregnancy, focusing on the
levels of fatigue that women experience during child-
birth and the association between fatigue and several
maternal factors. The best predictors for fatigue
among these women were examined. The set of possi-
ble predictors included whether the women took for-
mal childbirth education classes, their average
amount of sleep, whether they exercised during the
last trimester of pregnancy, whether they worked dur-
ing the last trimester of pregnancy, their anxiety
level, and whether they had been medicated prior to

the interview. When admitted to the hospital, the best

predictors of fatigue were anxiety, amount of sleep,

and medication. Two hours after admission, the best

predictors were previous fatigue, medication, and

work. Four hours after admission, the variables were

medication, previous fatigue, exercise, and childbirth

education. Six hours after admission, the predictors

with the greatest influence were previous fatigue,

medication, exercise, and work. Within twenty-four

hours after delivery, the greatest predictor of fatigue

was previous fatigue.

Although exercise in a couple of instances

seemed to be associated with fatigue, for the most part

it did not seem to be one of the best predictors for fa-

tigue. Along with the other benefits mentioned earli-

er, it would seem that exercise helps lessen a woman’s

fatigue during childbirth.

Conclusion

Never before has the importance of prenatal care

for the developing child been so apparent. With in-

creases in research and knowledge of what factors can

affect the zygote, embryo, and fetus, the likelihood

that such factors can have a negative impact on the

well-being of the child and the mother is greatly de-

creased.

See also: BIRTH; PREGNANCY; PREMATURE INFANTS

Bibliography

Boyd, Susan. Mothers and Illicit Drugs: Transcending the Myths. To-

ronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.

‘‘Pregnancy and Prenatal Care.’’ In the Make Way for Baby [web

site]. Pompano Beach, Florida, 2000. Available from http://

http://www.2bparent.com/pregnancy.htm; INTERNET.

‘‘Prenatal Development and Birth.’’ In the George Mason Univer-

sity [web site]. Fairfax, Virginia, 2001. Available from http://

classweb.gmu.edu/awinsler/ordp/prenatal.html; INTERNET.

Priest, Judy, and Kathy Attawell. Drugs in Conception, Pregnancy, and

Childbirth. London: Thorsons Publications, 1998.

Neil J. Salkind

PRESCHOOL

Most children begin their formal schooling at the age

of five or six. Many children, however, have experi-

ence with organized educational programs before

that time. Indeed, these ‘‘preschool’’ programs are

quite popular in today’s society. This article briefly re-

views the history of preschool programs in the United

States, differences in the philosophies guiding such

programs, their impact on children’s development,

cultural differences in preschool programs, and final-

ly the movement toward inclusion of children with

special needs in preschool.

PRESCHOOL 333