Child Development

fully understood. For example, the tonic neck reflex
is where an infant forms fists with both hands and usu-
ally turns her head to the right. This may have some-
thing to do with a preference for one side of the body
over the other. Pediatricians are interested in the
presence or absence of reflexes primarily because
they reflect the level of maturity of the central nervous
system.

See also: BRAZELTON NEONATAL ASSESSMENT SCALE;
INFANCY

Bibliography
Miller, Linda G., and Kay M. Albrecht. Innovations: The Comprehen-
sive Infant Curriculum. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House, 2000.
Tirosh, E. ‘‘Neonatal Neurobehavioural Assessment as Related to
Growth in Infancy.’’ Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psycholo-
gy 18, no. 1 (2000):61–66.
‘‘Your Baby’s Amazing Reflexes’’ [web site]. Available from http://
http://www.i5ive.com/article.cfm/developmental_psychology/46602;
INTERNET.
Neil J. Salkind

REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement generally refers to the increase or
strengthening of a particular response following the
delivery or removal of a stimulus or event. Given that
this is perhaps the most fundamental process in oper-
ant learning theory, it is critical to understand the dif-
ference between positive and negative reinforcement.
Simply stated, positive reinforcement involves the
presentation or delivery of something ‘‘positive,’’ and
negative reinforcement involves the removal, reduc-
tion, or termination of something ‘‘negative.’’ It is im-
portant to note that both processes have the same
effect; that is, they both strengthen or reinforce par-
ticular behaviors. This is a critical point, given that
negative reinforcement is often mistakenly equated
with punishment.

More specifically, positive reinforcement is a pro-
cess in which a stimulus is presented following a par-
ticular behavior, thereby strengthening that behavior.
The stimulus is referred to as a ‘‘reinforcer’’ and is
roughly synonymous with the word ‘‘reward.’’ The fol-
lowing is a simple example of positive reinforcement:
Clarice’s teacher provided lavish praise (a positive re-
inforcer) after Clarice used the word ‘‘please.’’ Clar-
ice’s use of this word was positively reinforced; thus,
she will be more likely to say ‘‘please’’ in the future.

Negative reinforcement is a process that involves
the removal or reduction of a negative or unwanted
stimulus after a behavior occurs, thereby strengthen-
ing that behavior. Negative reinforcement involves
responding to ‘‘escape’’ from an annoying or aversive
stimulus (i.e., a negative reinforcer or ‘‘punisher’’).

The following example demonstrates how Adam’s

gift-giving behavior was negatively reinforced:

Adam’s angry girlfriend, Holly, was not speaking to

him. To escape this aversive and unpleasant situation,

Adam gave Holly a bouquet of roses. The act of giving

roses led to the removal of an unwanted and aversive

situation (i.e., Holly began speaking to him again);

thus, Adam’s behavior was negatively reinforced. As

a result, Adam will be more likely to give roses to his

angry girlfriend in the future.

See also: LEARNING; SKINNER, B. F.

Bibliography

Chiesa, M. Radical Behaviorism: The Philosophy and the Science. Bos-

ton, MA: Authors Cooperative, 1994.

Iwata, Brian. ‘‘Negative Reinforcement in Applied Behavior Analy-

sis: An Emerging Technology.’’ Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis 20 (1987):361–378.

Martin, Gary, and Joseph Pear. Behavior Modification: What It Is and

How to Do It, 6th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice

Hall, 1996.

Skinner, B. F. Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan,

1953.

Skinner, B. F. Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis.

New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969.

Laurie A. Greco

RELIGION

From the earliest stages of birth through adolescence,

religion can play a role in providing a framework for

a child’s life and world view. A strong religious back-

ground can help children and adults individually and

together answer life’s most significant questions, re-

spond to difficult challenges, and make important de-

cisions. Religion conveys a sense of the sacred or holy,

often reflected in views of a god. Each religion con-

sists of rituals, symbols, stories, values, and role mod-

els, which guide and shape a child’s ways of being and

acting in the world. Parents draw upon these different

elements in passing on a religious tradition to their

children, often sharing the responsibility for educat-

ing their children with a religious school and a reli-

gious institution such as a church, synagogue, or

mosque.

Bibliography

Fowler, James W. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Develop-

ment and the Quest for Meaning. San Francisco: Harper and

Row, 1981.

Goodman, Roberta Louis. ‘‘Faith Development: A Jewish View.’’ In

Audrey Friedman Marcus and Raymond Zwerin eds., The New

Jewish Teachers Handbook. Denver: ARE Publishers, 1994.

Roberta Louis Goodman

RELIGION 345