autonomy and sense of self, and sense of meaning and
purpose.
The study of resilience holds the key to helping
strengthen children’s chances of succeeding in spite
of many obstacles. The good news is that the past is
not a prison, survivors exist who escaped and beat the
odds. Their strengths can be identified along with
strategies and processes to enhance the developmen-
tal process. Resilience can be cultivated.
See also: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT; STRESS
Bibliography
Glanz, Meyer, and Jeanette Johnson, eds. Resilience and Develop-
ment: Positive Life Adaptations. New York: Klewer Academic/
Plenum, 1999.
ResilienceNet. ‘‘Information for Helping Children and Families
Overcome Adversities.’’ A collaboration of Assist Internation-
al and ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Child-
hood Education [web site], 2000. Available from http://
resilnet.uiuc.edu; INTERNET.
Werner, Emily, and Ruth Smith. Overcoming the Odds: High-Risk
Children from Birth to Adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 1992.
Sandra K. Sloop
RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME
Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is a disorder of
lung function frequently affecting premature infants.
Infants born at less than thirty-two weeks gestation
are at the highest risk. RDS is caused by the inability
of immature lungs to produce sufficient amounts of
the chemical surfactant. Without surfactant, the small
air sacks of the lungs collapse, resulting in poor ex-
change of oxygen and respiratory distress. RDS may
be severe enough to cause respiratory failure and the
need for support with a ventilator. Generally, RDS
lasts three to five days; infants with mild cases recover
quickly. Sicker infants may require long-term respira-
tory support and can develop chronic lung disease.
RDS may be prevented and treated with the adminis-
tration of surfactant into the lungs of at-risk or affect-
ed newborns. Preventing premature birth and
treating pregnant women with steroid therapy prior
to a premature birth decreases the chances of imma-
ture lungs and RDS. However, RDS remains a leading
cause of death for premature infants.
Bibliography
Linden, Dana, Emma Paroli, and Mia Doron. Preemies: The Essential
Guide for Parents of Premature Babies. New York: Pocket Books,
2000.
Spafford, P. S. ‘‘Use of Natural Surfactants to Prevent and Treat
Respiratory Distress Syndrome.’’ Seminars in Perinatology 17,
no. 4 (1993):285–294.
Taeusch, H William, and Roberta Ballard. Avery’s Diseases of the
Newborn. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1998.
Diane D. Marshall
RETENTION
Retention, sometimes called flunking, is the practice
of having a child repeat a grade in school to help the
child acquire the academic and social skills needed
for success in later grades. Most research, however,
has found that simply repeating the same grade is not
very effective. Although children who are retained
often perform better during their second year in the
same grade, their gains usually shrink or disappear in
subsequent years. Moreover, children who are re-
tained are more likely to develop a bad attitude to-
ward school and are more likely to drop out of school
than nonretained children with similar levels of poor
achievement.
Since the mid-1990s, public policies against social
promotion (i.e., advancing children to the next grade
despite poor achievement, to keep them with chil-
dren of the same age) have spurred the development
of programs to help struggling children avoid reten-
tion. The same programs, such as extra tutoring,
summer school, and increased use of classroom aides,
could also help retained children gain more from
their experience.See also: MILESTONES OF DEVELOPMENTBibliography
Karweit, Nancy L. ‘‘Grade Retention: Prevalence, Timing, and Ef-
fects.’’ In the Johns Hopkins University CRESPAR [web site].
Baltimore, Maryland, 1998. Available from http://
http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/reports/report33chapt1.htm; IN-
TERNET.
Riley, Richard W., Marshall S. Smith, and Terry K. Peterson. ‘‘Tak-
ing Responsibility for Ending Social Promotion: A Guide for
Educators and State and Local Leaders.’’ In the U.S. Depart-
ment of Education [web site]. Washington, DC, 1999. Avail-
able from http://www.ed.gov/pubs/socialpromotion/title.html;
INTERNET.
Shepard, Lorrie A., and Mary L. Smith. Flunking Grades: Research
and Policies on Retention. London: Falmer Press, 1989.
Pamela P. HufnagelRH DISEASE
Rhesus disease (or Rh disease) is caused when Rh-
positive red blood cells from a fetus enter the
maternal circulation of an Rh-negative woman. This
usually happens at the time of delivery, but it can
occur at other times during pregnancy, such as spon-
taneous miscarriage or abortion. These cells are rec-
ognized as foreign to the mother’s immune system,
and antibodies are formed to destroy them. In the
next pregnancy, these antibodies can cross the pla-
centa and cause anemia (low blood count) in the
developing fetus. Rhesus-immune globulin is admin-
istered routinely at seven months in pregnancy and348 RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME