Infancy and Preschool: An Emphasis on
Biology and Parenting
Even before a child is born, much has occurred
in terms of social development. Genetic and prenatal
biological factors play a large, persistent role in deter-
mining later social behavior. After birth, parents and
other family members are the key socializing agents
of the preschooler’s development.
By studying monozygotic (i.e., identical) and di-
zygotic (i.e., fraternal) twins, as well as adopted sib-
lings, behavioral geneticists have concluded that
genetic factors account for 40 to 70 percent of the
variability in certain characteristics. Sandra Scarr de-
scribed how genes contribute directly to children’s
characteristics and indirectly influence social devel-
opment through three processes: passive effects, in
which children’s genes are related to the parenting of
their biological parents; evocative effects, by which
children elicit certain types of behaviors from others;
and active effects, through which children seek out
environments that best fit their genetic makeups.
Although it is clear that genetic makeup plays a
crucial role in social development, it is less certain ex-
actly what biological mechanisms account for this in-
fluence. Certainly, many innate factors affecting
social behavior are common to nearly all infants. For
instance, infants will cry when distressed, and they ac-
tively attend to and seek attention from caregivers.
Infants have differences, however, in their genetic
makeups, and researchers have searched for ways in
which these differences are expressed. Perhaps the
most widely studied aspect is temperament, which
consists of several components related to emotional
reactivity and regulation. Infants described as having
‘‘difficult temperament’’ are those who are fussy, be-
come upset easily, and are not easily soothed. Other
infants are considered inhibited—they are timid and
fearful, become easily upset by intense stimuli, and
are also not easily soothed. Infants with ‘‘easy temper-
aments’’ are outgoing and respond positively to social
stimuli (i.e., do not show excessive fear), and are easily
soothed when they do become upset. Temperament
is rather stable across time and exerts powerful elicit-
ing effects on parents’ and other family members’ be-
haviors toward the child across development.
Parenting practices also play a crucial role in in-
fants’ social development. Certain parenting prac-
tices, such as feeding and protecting, are necessary
for the infant’s survival and are performed by nearly
all parents. Parents vary considerably, however, in the
degree to which they are permissive, are warm or re-
jecting, and are consistent in the form of discipline
they apply. Many of these factors are incorporated
into Diana Baumrind’s three typologies of parenting:
authoritative parenting, in which parents are warm
and responsive to the child, yet place limits on the
child’s behavior; authoritarian parenting, in which
parents place strict limits on the child’s behavior, with
violation of these limits harshly punished, and in
which there is little parental warmth; and permissive
parenting, in which parents are warm and nurturing
without placing limits on the child’s behavior. There
is ample evidence that authoritative parenting is asso-
ciated with positive social development, whereas au-
thoritarian and permissive parenting are associated
with negative development (e.g., conflictual relation-
ships).
These parenting styles are influential throughout
development, but may be especially important in the
formation of attachment security in infancy. Accord-
ing to John Bowlby, nearly all infants form an attach-
ment bond to their caregivers, and this bond is
evolutionarily adaptive in promoting a balance be-
tween exploring the world and seeking safety with the
caregiver. Mary Ainsworth demonstrated that there
are important differences in infants’ attachment
styles, depending on the history of caregiver availabil-
ity and responsiveness. Secure attachment is related
to a history of warm and consistent parenting, avoi-
dant attachment to parental negativity and rejection,
and resistant attachment to inconsistent parenting.
These attachment styles influence social behavior not
only with parents, but also with siblings and peers. Se-
curely attached children are the most socially compe-
tent with others, while avoidant toddlers are hostile
and aggressive, and resistant toddlers are socially in-
hibited in their interactions with others.
These early influences likely exert influence on
later social behavior through the formation of social
cognitions, or mental representations of the social
world. Albert Bandura described three classes of so-
cial cognitions that guide social behavior: self-efficacy
is the perception of one’s ability to enact a behavior
(e.g., ‘‘how well am I able to maintain a conversation
with a peer?’’); outcome expectations are the expect-
ed consequences if one enacts a behavior (e.g., ‘‘if I
converse with this boy will he want to be my friend?’’);
and outcome values are the values placed on the ex-
pected outcomes (e.g., ‘‘do I want him as my
friend?’’). The behaviors of parents and other family
members shape these early social cognitions, which
are further shaped by interactions with peers in child-
hood.Childhood and Early Adolescence: An
Emphasis on Peers
Children spend much of their time with similar-
age peers. Meaningful interactions between peersSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 377