after personal goals, confident that they will succeed
in whatever they try. Adolescence marks a special cri-
sis period in Erikson’s theory, as this is a time when
children face adulthood and seek to define what kind
of adult they will be (in Erikson’s terms, they face an
‘‘identity crisis’’). Armed once more with the confi-
dence that they are good, competent, and worthy
people, young adults are able to open up their deep-
est, most vulnerable sides to loved ones, building inti-
mate relationships. They turn their efforts to the
good of society, and, in old age, take stock of their
lives with satisfaction at their accomplishments and
contributions. Thus Erikson’s theory, like Piaget’s, is
a perfect example of a stage model of development.
Each stage has its own unique features and issues, yet
looking across the stages one can easily trace the im-
pact of previous stages on subsequent development
and outcomes.
Summary
Returning for a moment to the scene on the play-
ground, Piaget’s and Erikson’s stage theories help
show that children at these various ages are not sim-
ply just adding to their experience and knowledge
base as they grow older in the way that a person glides
up an escalator at a smooth and steady pace. Instead,
their development is more like walking up a grand
staircase with multiple plateaus. Within a level they
are always making advances, and those advances
taken together help prepare them for the next level.
Once they reach that next higher level, they are fac-
ing a new set of issues, perhaps functioning in a quali-
tatively different way, but building nevertheless upon
their rich experience of previous levels.
See also: ERIKSON, ERIK; MILESTONES OF
DEVELOPMENT; OBJECT PERMANENCE; PIAGET,
JEAN; PLAY
Bibliography
Erikson, Erik H. Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton, 1968.
Ginsburg, Herbert, and Sylvia Opper. Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual
Development, 3rd edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1988.
Gross, Francis L. Introducing Erik Erikson: An Invitation to His Think-
ing. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1986.
Miller, Patricia H. Theories of Developmental Psychology, 3rd edition.
New York: Freeman, 1993.
Piaget, Jean, and Bärbel Inhelder. The Psychology of the Child. New
York: Basic, 1969.
Siegler, Robert S. ‘‘Children’s Thinking: How Does Change
Occur?’’ In Franz E. Weinert and Wolfgang Schneider eds.,
Memory Performance and Competencies: Issues in Growth and De-
velopment. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1995.
Virginia D. Allhusen
STANDARDIZED TESTING
Standardized testing is a commonly misunderstood
term. In actuality, a standardized test requires adher-
ence to identical administration and scoring of items/
tasks across people, time, and places. This uniformity
is reflected in clearly defined procedures in examin-
er’s manuals, test books, and scoring guides.
Many types of standardized tests exist, including
achievement, psychological, and licensure assess-
ments. These tests may include a combination of
open-ended and multiple-choice questions designed
to measure a particular trait, such as mathematics, in-
telligence, or a job skill. An excellent example of a
standardized achievement test is TerraNova: Multiple
Assessments Edition.
Standardization studies for these tests typically
involve large nationally representative samples.
These studies finalize administration and scoring
procedures, establish test timing, and quantify stu-
dent performance under the standardized proce-
dures. Study participants are selected to accurately
and fairly represent minority and socioeconomic
groups across geographical regions and/or other de-
mographic variable(s). This standardization proce-
dure permits comparison of future students to the
standardized group’s performance.See also: SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TESTBibliography
Abbott, Susan. Standardized Testing. Westminster, CA: Teacher Cre-
ated Materials, 1997.
National Education Association of the United States. Standardized
Testing Issues: Teachers’ Perspectives. Washington, DC: National
Education Association, 1977.
Linda J. McGarvey-LevinSTATE CHILDREN’S HEALTH
INSURANCE PROGRAM
The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (Public Law 105-
33) established the State Children’s Health Insurance
Program (SCHIP) as Title XXI of the Social Security
Act. This legislation, which involved the largest ex-
pansion of children’s health insurance coverage in
over thirty years, enables states to provide health in-
surance coverage to low-income children under age
nineteen who are uninsured and ineligible for Medic-
aid.
Not since the enactment of Medicaid has there
been a greater investment in children’s health care in
the United States. Title XXI provided over $40 bil-
lion in federal grants to states over a ten-year period.
States were required to contribute a defined share of
funds in order to obtain federal matching funds.STATE CHILDREN’S HEALTH INSURANCE PROGRAM 385