School and Peer Factors 295and disruptive behaviours, loneliness, misery and academic difficulties.
In the longer term, rejected children and adolescents are more likely to
drop out of school, engage in delinquent behaviour and have mental
health problems (though it is still unclear whether peer rejection con-
tributes directly to these later problems, or simply acts as a marker for
a life-long maladaptive behavioural style). Rejection is probably related
mainly to the individual’s social behaviour, though physical appearance,
academic and athletic limitations, and minority group status may all be
relevant (and some social groups may need a scapegoat or outcast). An
aggressive and disruptive style is the most common identifiable reason
for peer rejection. Marked self-isolation, particularly if combined with
socially inept or eccentric behaviour, is also liable to result in rejection.
Lesser degrees of shyness and withdrawal are more typical of neglected
individuals, and probably do not have serious long-term consequences.
Controversial individuals are typically characterised by a mixed social style,
incorporating both aversive and prosocial elements.
Institutional factors
Rates of child and adolescent psychiatric problems, absenteeism and delin-
quency vary markedly and consistently from school to school, often paral-
leling differences in examination results. Much of this can be explained by
differences in catchment area and intake. Even when intake characteristics
are allowed for, however, schools continue to differ in their impact on
pupils’ behaviour and academic attainments. Some of these differences
can be explained by school ethos and organisation. Pupils are less likely
to develop disruptive behaviour problems when they attend a school
where they are frequently praised and given responsibilities, where the
teachers provide models of good behaviour, and where standards are high,
lessons are well organised, and working conditions are pleasant. These
factors seem obvious enough, but it is important to remember that the
following equally ‘obvious’ factors have not been shown to have a marked
impact on school effectiveness: size of school, age or layout of buildings,
continuity of teaching staff, or type of pastoral care. Variations in class size
within the 25–35 range seem to have little effect on school effectiveness,
though much smaller classes (8–15) may have benefits if teachers take the
opportunity to adopt a more individualised style of teaching – with these
benefits being more marked for children who are younger, have special
needs, or come from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Oldest/youngest in class
In most classes, the oldest pupils are roughly a year older than the
youngest pupils. Many studies have shown that the youngest pupils
tend to be educationally disadvantaged. They also appear to be slightly