188 Early Agriculture
Notes
1 For early formulations of this view see Smith, 1937: 6; Mill, 1909: 131, 144; Marx, 1890–1894, I:
300, 322 ff. Modern economists have perpetuated and even sharpened them. Writes Seligman (1914:
350): ‘In the immense domain of agricultural production the possibility of combination is almost
entirely eliminated.’ And Marshall (1946: 290): ‘In agriculture there is not much division of labour,
and there is no production on a very large scale.’
2 For the concept of ‘previous or preparatory labor’ see Mill, 1909: 29, 31. The general principle
was already indicated by Smith (1937), who, when discussing the division of operations in
industry, pointed to the ‘growers of the flax and the wool’ and the miners as providers of raw
material (5 ff., 11), to the spinners and weavers as engaged in special processing operations (6),
and to the makers of tools as combining elements of both procedures (11). Mill (1909: 36 ff.)
also includes, in the category of previous labour, activities aimed at protecting industrial pro-
duction proper.
3 Wittfogel, 1956: 157.
4 Wittfogel, 1931: 312, 424, 337–344. Ibid., 1956: 158.
5 Buck, 1937: 61.
6 See Wittfogel, 1931: 253 ff., 261 ff., 267 ff.
7 Buckley, 1893: 10. Cf. Marshall, 1931, I: 6.
8 RRCAI: 359. Cf. Saha, 1930: 12.
9 See Strabo, 1917–1932, 16.1.10.
10 Wittfogel and Fêng, 1949: 661, n. 52.
11 Willcocks, 1904: 70.
12 See Humboldt, 1811, II: 193 ff.
13 Beech, 1911: 15.
14 Parsons, 1939, I; 111.
15 Gutmann, 1909: 20.
16 Eck and Liefrinck, 1876: 228 ff.
17 Deimel, 1928: 34. Ibid., 1931: 83.
18 Sethe, 1912: 710 ff.
19 Arthaçāstra, 1926: 60. Arthaçāstra, 1923: 51 ff.
20 Blas Valeras = Garcilaso, 1945, I: 245.
21 Sahagun, 1938, I: 292, 296.
22 Ramirez, 1944: 52, 75. Tezozomoc, 1944: 381, 385.
23 Willcocks, 1889: 274.
24 Ibid.; 279.
25 Ibid.
26 Gutmann, 1926: 369, 374.
27 Parsons, 1939, I: 124–126. Wittfogel and Goldfrank, 1943: 29.
28 Rüstow, who in general accepts Kern’s view concerning the correlation between large-scale and
government-directed water control and the centralized and despotic character of the state in
ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, assumes that in these areas nomadic conquerors developed the
hydraulic works after establishing conquest empires (Rüstow, 1950–1952, I: 306).
Patterns of leadership and discipline traditional to conquering groups could be, and probably
were, invoked in establishing certain hydraulic governments; but Pueblo, Chagga and Hawai-
ian society show that such formative patterns could also be endogenous. In any case, the ethno-
graphic and historical facts point to a multiple rather than a single origin for hydraulic
societies.
29 Cf. Wittfogel, 1931: 456 ff., 680 ff. Ibid., 1938: 98 ff. Wittfogel and Fêng, 1949: 123, 467.
30 Herodotus, 1942, 2.10g.