A Student's Introduction to English Grammar

§2.2 Adverbs vs adjectives 123

Not only do adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, they also modify
determinatives, PPs and NPs. Again we double-underline the head that is modified
in [34].

[34] a. Virtually all copies are torn.
11 a. I did it virtually by myself.
III a. I'm virtually his only friend.

b. I have almost no money left.

b. It lasted almost until midnight.

b. I bought almost the last copy.

[determinative]

[PP]

[NP]

Note that in [iii] the adverb functions as external modifier, not internal modifier like
virtual in [33ia] (see Ch. 5, §6).
The basic division, then, is between words that modify nouns, and words that
modify other categories (categories of words or of larger constituents). The noun­
modifiers are adjectives, and the others are adverbs. I By no means all adverbs can
modify all of this wide range of head elements, but there is a significant amount of
overlap. Moreover, in all of these positions we find adverbs that are recognisable as
such by virtue of being derived from an adjective by the addition of ·ly.

2.2 Adverbs vs adjectives

In § 1.1 we listed three major properties of adjectives, having to do
with function, grade and modification. The last two apply to adverbs as well as
adjectives.
Prototypical members of the adverb category enter into the system of grade,
though the ·er and ·est suffixes are incompatible with the ·ly suffix (we find neither
quicklier nor quickerly), so for the most part comparatives and superlatives are
formed by means of more and most rather than by inflection, as in quickly, more
quickly, most quickly. And adverbs, like adjectives, take adverbs as modifier, as
illustrated in [33]. The crucial distinction between adverbs and adjectives is thus a
matter of function.
One aspect of this has already been discussed: adjectives modify nouns whereas
adverbs modify other categories. But there is another functional difference that is no
less important. Most adjectives can function as predicative complement as well as
noun modifier, but adverbs do not normally occur in this function. Again the differ­
ence is most easily seen by taking adjective-adverb pairs related by ·ly:

[3 5 ] MODIFIER
a. an impressive performance
11 a. She performed impressively.

PREDICATIVE COMPLEMENT

b. Her performance was impressive.

b. *Her performance was impressively.

[adjective]

[adverb]

I This is slightly oversimplified. There is a construction where we find an adverb modifying a noun. as
in Industrial action resulted in the withdrawal indefinitely of the vehicular ferry service or A �
of timber internationally led to a steep rise in prices. The construction is subject to severe constraints;
most importantly. adverbial modifiers of nouns are restricted to post-head position - compare the
indefinite withdrawal of the vehicular ferry service. where the pre-head modifier is required to be an
adjective. There are also constraints on the kind of adverb permitted. Manner adverbs. for example.
are normally excluded. so that we have his ill1W reaction. but not *his reaction an�rily.