Murphy, William Parry 233Egyptian Mummies:
Brief History and Radiological Studies
ByWilliam A. Wagle, M.D.
Egyptians practiced the art of mummification for several
thousand years and produced millions of human mummies.
Mummification began in its most primitive form in the late
fourth millennium B.C.E. (before 3100 B.C.E.) but did not reach
its zenith until around 1000 B.C.E. The underlying goal of
mummification was to preserve the physical form of the
deceased person so that his soul or bawould recognize its
body and be united with it in the hereafter. Mummification
was practiced by various ancient cultures, including the
Incas of South America, but the technique was perfected in
ancient Egypt, where funeral houses dotted the Nile River
from the Mediterranean Sea to the ancient city of Thebes.
The Egyptians believed that after death the body must
be intact and have a proper burial for resurrection. Instead
of cremation, the bodies were prepared to enter the here-
after as “whole” as possible. During the early dynasties,
mummification was a burial form reserved for kings, but by
1000 B.C.E. the practice had become widespread. The
pharaohs had the most elaborate burials because it was
believed that they became gods after death. High-ranking
officials, priests, nobles, and wealthy individuals also
underwent mummification.
Mummification was not practiced in prehistoric times,
when the dead were simply buried in desert pits. The Egyp-
tians realized that bodies were preserved naturally in the
dry, hot sands of the Egyptian desert. The remains of buried
individuals were recognizable many years later. According
to renowned Egyptologist Bob Brier, “The Egyptians started
burying their dead in chambers cut into moist bedrock
beneath the sand in order to protect the bodies from rob-
bers or from being uncovered by the shifting desert sands.
Without contact with the dehydrating hot sands, they were
subject to decay. This probably gave the Egyptians the
impetus to invent mummification.”
While Egyptians left very little in written documents
about the process of mummification, Egyptologists have
been able to unlock many of its mysteries with detailed
analysis of human mummies. The best ancient source of
information on the details of this embalming technique
comes from Herodotus, a Greek historian who visited Egypt
around 500 B.C.E. He left an account of mummification in a
publication called The History II.
According to this account, the first step of mummifica-
tion was the removal of the brain, which the Egyptians felt
had no value. This was achieved with a curved metal hook,
which was inserted through the nose. The metal could easi-
ly fracture the thin ethmoid bone and enter the skull. The
curved hook was twisted repeatedly to macerate the brain,
which was removed piecemeal through the nose.
According to Herodotus, “The skull is cleared of the
rest by rinsing with drugs; next they make a cut along the
flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone and take out the whole
contents of the abdomen, which they then cleanse, washing
it thoroughly with palm wine, and again frequently with an
infusion of pounded aromatics. After this they fill the cavity
with the purest bruised myrrh, with cassia, and every sort of
spice except frankincense, and sew up the opening. Then
the body is placed in natrum for 70 days and covered entire-
ly over. After the expiration of this space of time, which
must not be exceeded, the body is washed, and wrapped
round, from head to foot, with bandages of fine linen cloth,
smeared over with gum, which is used generally by the
Egyptians in the place of glue, and in this state it is given
back to the relations, who enclose it in a wooden case
which they have made for this purpose, and shaped into the
figure of a man. Then fastening the case, they place it in a
sepulchral chamber, upright against the wall. Such is the
most costly way of embalming the dead.”
Herodotus’s account has been confirmed as basically
accurate by modern analysis of Egyptian mummies. Mum-
mification evolved considerably during the 2,000 years from
its beginning in the Old Kingdom to the time described by
Herodotus. All internal organs except the heart, which was
considered the seat of emotions and intellect, were
removed to prevent decomposition and putrefaction. By tra-
dition, the abdominal incision was made with an Ethiopian
stone, which was as sharp as a razor. The lungs, stomach,
liver, intestines, and other organs were embalmed with
natron, which was the primary drying agent used in mummi-
fication. This salt worked by absorbing water from the inter-
nal organs, muscles, and blood before microbial action and
decomposition could begin. Once the process of enzymatic
decomposition of protein begins, there is production of foul-
smelling compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia,
and mercaptans. The tissues decompose and rot away.
When the organs were sufficiently dried out, they were
placed into ornamental burial jars usually made of lime-
stone. These were called “canopic jars” named in honor of
the Greek legend of Canopus, who was buried in Egypt. It is
said that he was worshipped in the form of a jar with feet.
Each canopic jar contained a different organ. The lid of
each jar was carved in the shape of one of the four sons of
Horus: Mesti, the human-headed son; Duamutef, the jackal;
Hapi, the baboon; and Qebesenef, the hawk.
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