180 ESPIONAGE
cope with Jean-Christophe’s epilepsy. Similar to the use of folklore and mythology,
David B. seeks refuge in art itself. Th us the references to his own work do not only act
as autobiographical accounts but also provide the much needed sense of purpose for the
young protagonist.
What makes Epileptic a masterpiece of European comic narration is its complexity
and ambiguity. David B. leads his readers with his very personal memoir into an emo-
tional grey area. In the end it is still unclear how his brother’s life will evolve. Epileptic is
not an enclosed narration that begins and ends, but rather represents a constant struggle
which does not stop after the comic book is already concluded. A fi tting frame for the
whole comic is provided by David B.’s younger sister Florence Beauchard, who gives her
own personal account of the family’s history in the fore- and afterword of the comic.
See also: Memoir/Slice-of-Life Th emes
Daniel Wüllner
ESPIONAGE. Th e espionage genre in literature derives from 19th-century British
fi ction and parallels the rise of governmental intelligence agencies in the business
of protecting military secrets for national security. Th e genre received a particular
impetus from public preoccupation with the Dreyfus aff air, a French political scan-
dal in the 1890s involving state secrets between France and Germany. Th e scandal
involved a conspiracy and subsequent government frame-up along with espionage and
counter-espionage. Th e aff air exposed the public to the complexities of international
relations. Th e drama and intrigue of international espionage was a theme seen in late
Victorian-era detective fi ction, most notably in the Sherlock Holmes story “Th e Naval
Treaty” (1893). Espionage themes would be further developed with Joseph Conrad’s
Th e Secret Agent (1907).
During World War II and the Cold War, spy fi ction became a popular genre, exem-
plifi ed by the James Bond adventures written by Ian Fleming in the 1950s and 1960s, to
the Tom Clancy novels of the mid-1980s. Th e spy genre was also popular in television
and fi lm. Th e advantage of espionage fi ction is that is a malleable format that may incor-
porate elements of (but is not limited to) action/adventure, political intrigue, romance,
and military genres as well. Popular products coming out of the spy genre, such as the
James Bond movies, have had wide-ranging cultural infl uences, while others, such as
the 1960s television series Th e Man from UNCLE, become products of their time and
work on a nostalgic, campy level.
After the Cold War and into the post-9/11 era, the espionage genre focused more
on military intelligence gathering, anti-terrorism tactics, and the role of technology
in espionage work, along with global fi nance and communication. Popular interest in
the spy genre is still prevalent as demonstrated by the fi ction and fi lms of the Bourne
Identity series and recent Mission Impossible movies.
Th e inclusion of espionage as a storytelling device in comics parallels the popularity
of the genre in popular media, as spying and espionage tales make their way into various
