they call tawil, which allows them to extract the
Quran’s inward, symbolic meanings.
In their debates over the Quran’s outward and
inward meanings, Muslims have invoked the fol-
lowing verse:
(God) sent down upon you this book in
which are some clear verses—they are the
mother of the book—and others that are
ambiguous. Those whose hearts are devious
follow what is ambiguous in it to cause dis-
cord when they interpret it. Only God knows
how to interpret it and those who are firm
in knowledge, they say: “We believe in it; all
comes from our lord.” (Q 3:7)Sunnis say that only God and Sunni religious
scholars are qualified to interpret the Quran,
especially the clear verses, while other interpreta-
tions are troublesome. The Shia maintain that,
to the contrary, God endowed the infallible Shii
imams with the gift of interpreting both the clear
and ambiguous verses to extract their inward
meaning. They teach that verses referring to the
“straight path” (Q 1:6), the “light of God” (Q
64:8), and the “truthful ones” (Q 9:119) are secret
references to their Imams. Even the Sun and the
moon, mentioned in Q 91:1–4, are interpreted to
represent Muhammad and Ali, while “day” stands
for the imams and “night” for the enemies of the
imams. Moreover, the Shia see the story of Abra-
ham’s sacrifice (Q 37:100–110) as a secret prefigu-
ration of Husayn’s martyrdom at karbala in 680.
Most Sunnis would reject such interpretations.
The Ismailis, or Seven-Imam Shia, were the
first major Shii sect to propagate the idea of
inward meanings of the Quran, starting in the
eighth century. They maintained that Muham-
mad, as the prophet of Islam, was sent to transmit
the outward meanings of the Quran, and that the
Imams were charged with transmitting its inward
meanings. Most branches of the Ismailis accepted
the coexistence of the two kinds of interpretation,
as did the Twelve-Imam Shia. They also required
that members become knowledgeable about the
Quran’s outward meanings before delving into
its hidden ones. Ismailis maintained that there
were ascending levels of inward meanings that
students had to comprehend in order to arrive at
the supreme truth. Sufis also have sought to elicit
the inward meanings of the Quran, but they do
so with the guidance provided by divine inspira-
tion or a Sufi master (shaykh or pir), rather than
an Imam.
See also haqiqa; ismaili shiism; tWelve-imam
shiism.Further reading: Moojan Momen, An Introduction to
Shii Islam (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press,
1985); David Pinault, The Shiites: Ritual and Popular
Piety in a Muslim Community (New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1992).Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship
The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship was founded
by the American followers of Sri Lankan Sufi
mystic Muhammad Raheem Bawa Muhaiyaddeen.
Little is known of the early life, not even the birth
date, of Bawa Muhaiyaddeen. He emerged from
obscurity in the 1930s when he began to teach in
Colombo, where the Serendih Study Group was
formed. Here he was discovered by an American
spiritual seeker, and in 1971, he accepted an
invitation to move to the United States. Once in
Philadelphia, a group of disciples formed around
him, the Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship was
organized, and he decided to stay in the West,
though he periodically returned to Sri Lanka to
teach.
Through the 1970s and until his death in
1986, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen was credited with a
number of books, many developed from his talks,
as he could not read or write, and the fellow-
ship grew slowly but steadily. Additional centers
were opened across the United States and one in
England before his death. Subsequently, the fel-
lowship has expanded to aUstralia.Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship 95 J