ages are said to be impure and can prevent Mus-
lims from fulfilling their religious duties unless
avoided or removed. Only in cases of dire neces-
sity are exceptions made to these prohibitions (Q
2:172–173).
Specific dietary rules may also apply to wor-
ship and other activities in Muslim life. prayer,
Fasting during ramadan, almsgiving, and the haJJ
all involve restrictions and procedures concern-
ing food that participants are required to observe.
Offering food is one of the most important acts of
charity, but the act is invalid if the food offered is
forbidden. There are also rules of etiquette rec-
ommended for occasions involving Feasting and
hospitality as well as ordinary meals (for example,
pronouncing the basmala, taking food and drink
with the right hand, and not reclining while eat-
ing). Sufi brotherhoods have developed rules for
eating and fasting that apply exclusively to their
members.
In the modern age of large-scale movements
of people around the world, science, and fast-food
franchises, Muslim dietary rules have taken on new
significance. Many educated Muslims, for example,
attempt to explain their ancient dietary laws to non-
Muslims in terms of modern concepts of health and
science. Others use them to maintain their distinc-
tive identities in foreign lands or as their own Mus-
lim cultures undergo far-reaching changes. Studies
of Muslim immigrants in Europe and the United
States have shown that adherence to dietary laws
concerning pork, alcohol, and animal slaughter are
among the most common aspects of their religious
tradition they are likely to observe. Practicing Afri-
can-American Muslims are also careful to observe
Muslim dietary laws. In Muslim countries, many
of which are quite secular, governments issue laws
that seek to win compliance for dietary rules and
control the availability of alcohol. saUdi arabia,
libya, sUdan, iran, and aFghanistan have officially
banned the sale and public consumption of alco-
hol, although there is often a black market trade in
such banned beverages.
See also animals; apostasy; Food and drink.
Further reading: Valerie J. Hoffman, “Eating and Fast-
ing for God in Sufi Tradition.” Journal of the American
Academy of Religion 63 (Fall 1995): 465–484; Yusuf al-
Qaradawi, The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam (Al-halal
wal-haram fi al-Islam). Translated by Kamal El-Helbawi,
M. Moinuddin Siddiqui, and Syed Shukry (Indianapolis:
American Trust Publications, 1960), 39–78.disbelief See kafir.
divorce
Divorce is a formal separation between a husband
and wife by custom or by law. In Islam, it falls
within the sphere of jurisprudence (fiqh), which
is concerned with family law and also includes the
laws of marriage and inheritance. Divorce (talaq)
is therefore legally recognized in the Islamic legal
tradition, where it is based on detailed rulings
given in the qUran (Q 2:226–232, 236–237, 241;
65:1–7) and hadith and further elaborated in the
schools (madhahib) of religious law. Moreover,
Islamic divorce law is not monolithic—it embod-
ies differences of opinion among the legal schools
and reflects local customs found within the world’s
various Muslim communities. Muslim family law
did not begin to be formally codified until the
20th century, but even with this codification there
are still significant differences among the divorce
laws instituted by countries with Muslim majority
populations.
Although divorce is permitted in Islam, Mus-
lims have noted that the Quran and hadith con-
tain statements that recommend against it. The
Quran urges that the husband and wife seek arbi-
tration in order to preserve their relationship (Q
4:35). According to a hadith cited in the collection
of Abu Daud (d. 889), Muhammad said, “None
of the things permitted by God is more hated by
him than divorce.” As a permitted practice, how-
ever, Islamic law gave men the exclusive right to
initiate divorce, which could be accomplished by
simply stating “I divorce you” three times. Thedivorce 199 J