K xxvi Encyclopedia of Islam
family, beginning with Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661).
Since the seventh century the Shia have vied with
the Sunnis about who is best suited to govern
the community. In opposition to the Shia, Sunnis
favored the caliphs—leaders chosen initially by
consensus of community leaders on the basis of
their experience and public reputation. In general
the Shia believe that 1) their Imams have been
divinely appointed and inspired; 2) they are free
from sin and error; and 3) they are uniquely quali-
fied to provide religious guidance and insight.
According to the Shia, the world itself could not
exist without an Imam also being present in it.
The largest branch of the Shia, known as the
Twelve-Imam Shia, or Imamis, believe that all
but one of their 12 Imams suffered martyrdom
in defense of their faith and that the 12th will
return after a period of concealment (ghayba) that
began in 872 as a messiah (savior) to inaugurate
a reign of universal justice prior to Judgment Day.
The teachings of the Imams constitute the core of
Shii hadith, and their tombs in Iraq and Iran have
become sacred centers where pilgrims assemble to
obtain their blessings and intercession.
The Ismailis constitute another division of the
Shia, differing from the Twelvers with regard to
whom they count among their Imams (beginning
with their namesake Ismail, the elder son of Jaafar
al-Sadiq [d. 765]), and the deference they give to
the authority of the living Imam, rather than to
those of the past. Even though they are only about
10 percent of the estimated Shii population over-
all, they have played a significant role in shaping
the course of Islamic history and intellectual life.
Sufism (tasawwuf) is a general designation
used for the mystical expressions of Islam, wherein
experiential knowledge of God and attainment of
unity in or with him are primary goals. The term
is based on the Arabic word suf, or wool, which
was worn by Christian and Muslim ascetics in
the Middle East. Sufis also explain it in relation
to the Arabic word safa, which denotes the idea
of purity. Although the historical roots of Sufism
go back to individual ascetics who lived during
the first centuries of Islamic history, most Sufis
became organized into groups or orders known as
“paths” (sing. tariqa) after the 11th century. Each
tariqa consists of spiritual masters (known as
shaykhs and pirs) who attract disciples and initi-
ate them into the mystical teachings and rituals of
the group. Sufis turn to the Quran and sunna for
inspiration and guidance, and trace the lineages of
their doctrines and practices to Muhammad and
the first generation of his followers. Most Sufis
regard the sharia as a foundational aspect of their
spiritual outlook, and their ranks are filled with
followers from across the spectrum of the Muslim
community—including Sunnis and Shiis, rulers,
merchants, scholars, peasants, and ordinary labor-
ers as well. There are many different Sufi orders
with branches around the world, although there
are no precise statistics for them. They are often
credited with having contributed to the spread of
Islam, especially through the shrines containing
the remains and relics of Sufi saints. These holy
places have become the focal points for many
forms of popular devotionalism and pilgrimage.
Sufism has also produced a rich body of Islamic
literature, including mystical poetry, hagiography,
and devotional manuals.
In more recent times, other self-identified
groupings of Muslims have appeared, sometimes
labeled as radical Islamist and jihadist move-
ments. Also known as Islamic fundamentalists,
a designation that is declining in use because of
its imprecision, these groups are small in terms
of actual numbers with respect to the total Mus-
lim population. They have surpassed, however,
other Muslim groups in terms of the amount of
attention given to them by governments, inter-
national organizations, and the global media.
This is because of their involvement in activities
aimed at fighting perceived enemies of Islam at
home and abroad, which can take a heavy toll in
terms of civilian casualties and economic damage.
The central goal of many of jihadist groups is to
establish governments that will enforce Islamic
law, uphold public morality, and free Muslims