Introduction xxix Jethnic and national bodies. They may even take
pride in tracing their origins to particular regions
(like the Hijaz in Arabia), cities and towns, and
families and tribes. Education, profession, gender,
and social status also contribute to the formation
of Muslim identity. The form of Islam by which
Muslims live and in which they believe, therefore,
is something that is shaped by any combination
of these factors. Muslim understandings of them-
selves and their religion have also been shaped
by their ongoing encounters with non-Muslims,
peaceful and otherwise, through the centuries.
The Expansion of Islam
Islam has long been a global religion, but this
was not the way it began. It first appeared dur-
ing the seventh century in the Hijaz, a remote
mountainous area along the western edge of the
Arabian Peninsula, far from the centers of urban
civilization. The dominant powers in the Middle
Eastern and eastern Mediterranean regions at the
time were the Byzantines, heirs to the Roman
Empire, and the Persians. These two empires
had been fighting continually with each other for
control of trade routes, land, and people. Within
less than 100 years after Islam’s appearance, Arab
Muslim warriors had swept out of Arabia into the
Middle East and North Africa, bringing about the
downfall of Byzantium and Persia and inaugurat-
ing a succession of Islamic states that would rule
a large part of the known world until the collapse
of the Ottoman dynasty after World War I. At its
height in the 10th century, Muslim rule extended
eastward from Spain (known as Andalusia) and
Morocco to the eastern frontiers of Persia and
Afghanistan. On the basis of the success of the
Muslim conquests, it has become a commonplace
to assert that Islam is a violent religion that was
spread by the sword. Like all stereotypes, it is
based on some truth, mixed with distortion and
erroneous conclusions drawn from incomplete
evidence. Scholars specializing in the early his-
tory of Islam and its transregional expansion have
found that the historical factors involved were
much more varied and complex than the “con-
quest by the sword” thesis would suggest.
Early Islamic historical sources and evidence
drawn from the Quran and the hadith indicate that
several different religious currents existed in Ara-
bia in the seventh century. These included native
Arabian religions, different Jewish and Christian
doctrines, and Zoroastrianism—the dualistic reli-
gion of ancient Persia. Muhammad ibn Abd Allah
(ca. 570–632), the historical founder of Islam,
was born in Mecca, a regional shrine town in the
Hijaz. After receiving what Muslim sources report
were his first revelations at the age of 40 while on
Mount Hira outside of Mecca, he drew from these
religious currents and launched a religious move-
ment that called for Meccans to worship one God
instead of many, perform acts of charity for the
weak and the poor, and believe that there would
be a final judgment when God would resurrect the
dead and hold each person accountable for his or
her righteous and wrongful acts. The blessed were
promised a place in paradise, the heavenly garden,
and the damned would suffer the tortures of hell,
the realm of fire. Muhammad attracted a small
following of converts from among his relatives,
friends, former slaves, and even some non-Arabs.
Other Meccans, particularly influential members
of the Quraysh clan, became hostile toward him.
This opposition resulted in the Hijra (emigra-
tion) of Muhammad and his followers to Medina
in 622. The community soon grew larger, thanks
to the conversion of Medinan clans to Islam.
They are remembered as the Ansar (helpers).
The earliest expansion of the Muslim community,
therefore, occurred peacefully and involved the
emigration of the first Muslims from their old
home to new ones. Emigration and resettlement
subsequently became important factors in the
spread of Islam. During this time, the commu-
nity also had to defend itself from attacks by the
Quraysh. After engaging in a successful series of
campaigns against his opponents, Muhammad
finally achieved the peaceful surrender of Mecca